Module 2 Second Language, Lecture notes of English Language

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Authors:

Teresa Navés

Carmen Muñoz

Maria Pavesi

MMOODDUULLEE 2 2 SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION

FOR CLIL

54 TIE-CLIL PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COURSE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

55 OUTLINE

57 NOTES TO THE TRAINER

59 UNIT 1 Interlanguage: Learner’s Language Teresa Navés

67 UNIT 2 Incidental vs. Intentional Learning Maria Pavesi

72 UNIT 3 Input Characteristics Carmen Muñoz

78 UNIT 4 Second Language Competence Maria Pavesi

86 UNIT 5 Individual Characteristics of the Learner Carmen Muñoz

91 UNIT 6 Characteristics of Successful CLIL Programmes Teresa Navés

98 BIBLIOGRAPHY

56 TIE-CLIL PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COURSE

Individual profile of good language learners in terms of

incidental and intentional language learning

A list of illustrations of comprehensible input provision and

output sequences in the classroom

Diagram of second language competence and communication

strategies with examples taken from CLIL situations

Summary of language learners’ individual characteristics and

relevance to CLIL.

CERTIFICATION According to local programme implementation.

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Notes to the trainer

Structure

Each unit contains a core information text titled What is….? as well as some other sources of

input from other readings such as articles, excerpts, abstracts, reviews, extracts, etc. as the

main source of information. Whereas the former was written and designed by the authors of

each unit, the second source of information comes from published materials.

The core information text could be seen as an introduction to the state of the art of each topic

(input types, interlanguage, etc.). It is a summary of what participants should know about the

topic by the end of each unit. It can also be seen as the trainer’s notes within contact hours

teaching or as a self-study material for the end-users. Each core information text presents the

main ideas from SLA field which are relevant for CLIL.

The structure of each unit can be best understood as consisting of three main steps: pre-

tasks, readings and post-reading tasks. Pretasks elicit and check participants’ background

knowledge to build on their previous knowledge, to raise some expectations, to allow

syllabus planning and negotiation, etc. Most of those tasks involve brainstorming, initial

evaluation etc. The introductory tasks are followed by the readings. Each unit offers a

wide variety of post-reading tasks to ensure and check comprehension, ranging from very

practice-oriented to more academic-based. Some of the post-reading tasks suggest some

additional and further tasks and readings, some of which involve rethinking and self-

assessment.

Unit 1 focuses on the concept of learner’s language and types of errors.

The main question is to consider how to handle learners’ errors in CLIL classes.

This unit is meant primarily for language specialists.

Unit 2 discusses the differences between incidental and intentional learning.

Unit 3 analyses the different type of input: comprehensible, simplified, elaborated, etc.

Unit 4 analyses some language produced in CLIL contexts.

Unit 5 discusses the importance of learners’ individual characteristics.

Unit 6 examines the characteristics of successful CLIL programmes.

Recommendations

1. Before starting the module

Participants may vary considerably as concerns their previous background on Second Language

Acquisition. Language teachers may be already familiar with some of the ideas discussed in

this module, although probably not many have seen them related to CLIL previously. On the

other hand, for subject teachers this may be the first time they are presented with the ideas

and findings from the field of SLA.

The trainer should take this difference into consideration when planning the sessions and

choosing the tasks. While language teachers can be expected to be able to work through all

the tasks and read the core information text as well as the selected readings, for subject teachers,

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MODULE

Unit 1

Interlanguage: Learner’s Language 4 hours

OBJECTIVES 1. To identify the different characteristics of interlanguage

(learners’ language)

2. To distinguish and identify different types of learners’ errors:

errors which are a necessary step in the acquisition process

( developmental errors ) and errors that can be attributed to L

influence

3. To reflect on the importance of developmental sequences

PROCEDURES 1. Initial activity

2. Introductory text

3. Tasks on the text for language teachers, content teachers and

both; in group, pair-work text-based discussions, individual

work

4. Individual reading of recommended articles; class discussion

5. Self-assessment

WORKING

MATERIALS 1. “What is ‘ interlanguage ’?”

2. Lightbown, P. & Spada, N., “Learner Language”, in How

languages are learned , Oxford University Press, 1994: 71-

3. Larsen-Freeman, Diane, “Grammar and Its Teaching:

Challenging the Myths”. ERIC Digest. Source: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC

http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed406829.html

EXPECTED

OUTCOMES 1. Glossary of key terms

2. Solutions to the problem-solving situations discussed

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1. Initial activities

You may choose one of the following initial activities.

Task 1

In this section you will find out the extent to which some of your expectations and beliefs about (a) how languages are learnt, (b) the type of errors learners make and (c) how teachers should deal with them are either confirmed or disconfirmed by second language acquisition research findings.

Are the following statements true or false? Do you know why?

Initial Evaluation: Checking our own beliefs

1. In learning a foreign language (i.e. English), most of the errors students from different first language (L1) background (Spanish / German / Italian / French first language) will be making are completely different from one another.
2. Most of the errors which foreign language learners make are due to interference / influence of their first language.
3. One of the potential dangers of students talking to their peers is that they might pick up each others’ errors.
4. The way each person learns a language is completely different from another. It depends on the language they speak, their attitude, their intelligence, motivation, etc.
5. An increase in the number of second or foreign language learners’ errors is sometimes an indicator of progress.
6. The easier a grammar rule is, the easier it will be acquired. For example, 3 rd^ person -s for present simple in English is rather easy to state and it is fairly easy to acquire.
7. Learners’ knowledge about the language (i.e. knowing grammar rules) does not necessarily result in being able to use it in more open and free spontaneous contexts.
8. Languages are learnt mainly through imitation.
9. Both first and second language (L2) learners in the process of learning the English past, would start using frequent irregular past verbs (e.g. mummy went , w e saw ) before they use regular past tenses (e.g. mummy called ).
10. Both L1 and L2 learners in the process of learning the English past may be saying things such as We played cards yesterday but also I buyed the book [instead of I bought the book ] / She teached me [instead of she taught me ].
11. Second language structures which differ most from the equivalent structures in a learner’s native language (L1) are also the most difficult to acquire and should therefore be given greatest emphasis in the syllabus.
12. Second language structures which are closer to the equivalent structures in a learner’s native language (L1) are the easiest to acquire and should therefore be given greatest emphasis in the syllabus.
13. There is a direct relationship between linguistic complexity and learning difficulty.
14. The syllabus should present target structures to the learner in order of increasing complexity.
15. Both in first and second language acquisition there are systematic and predictable stages or sequences of acquisition.

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suggested learners had acquired a given morpheme when they were able to use it grammatically most of the time. Lately, however, most researchers suggest learners have acquired a language form when they are able to use it in spontaneous settings whether in a target-like fashion or not, most of the time. One researcher in particular developed one of the latest models of acquisition based on the idea that a language form had been acquired if learners would use it at least in three obligatory contexts from the communicative tasks in which they were engaged, yet not necessarily target-like. When learners are in the process of learning something they would attempt to use the language form in a wide variety of ways, overgeneralising its rule and also using it in non-obligatory contexts. For example when a learner is in the process of learning the English past , he or she may say I saw you yesterday when I go beach but I didn’t saw Mia. I’m going to called her.

Similarities between First Language and Second Language Acquisition Children do not learn their mother tongue simply through imitation and practice ; instead, they produce utterances that are not like those they have heard. Children’s language seems to be created on the basis of some internal processes and knowledge which interact with the language they are exposed to, allowing them to find out how the language system works gradually. Children’s early language seems best described as a developing system with its own internal and systematic structures, not just an imperfect imitation of the language they are in the process of learning. Finally, children’s language reveals there is an order of acquisition of English morphemes and also some other syntactic structures such as negation. For example, English children invariably first start using the –ing morpheme before they would ever come up with a plural –s form; or they start using the irregular past of some highly frequent verbs such as saw and went before they start using the regular –ed morpheme. When they start using the regular –ed morpheme , they also tend to overgeneralise its use and apart from saying called , they would also say comed. In acquiring English negation , children also go though a series of stages, some of which are not target-like (grammatical). At one stage, English children use pre-verbal negation in utterances like mummy no comb hair. SLA research has also found out that second language learners learn English morphemes in a given order of acquisition and that the plural –s morpheme is acquired much earlier than the third person –s morpheme. In fact, the 3 rd^ person –s morpheme along with the –ed morpheme is one of the latest morphemes acquired by second language learners. Learners will only start using those morphemes in spontaneous situations once they have already acquired other morphemes such as the plural –s.

Interlanguage Interlanguage is the learners’ language, i.e., the type of language produced by learners who are in the process of learning a second language. Interlanguage is also defined as the learners’ developing second language knowledge. Analysis of the learners’ interlanguage shows that it has some characteristics of the learner’s native language, some characteristics of the second language and some characteristics which are very systematic, i.e., rule-governed and common to all learners. In language acquisition, learners’ errors are caused by several different processes.

Learners’ Errors SLA has identified three main types of errors. The first of these are developmental errors, which are similar to the errors made by children learning the language as their first language. Developmental errors are assumed to be a natural product of a gradually developing ability in the new language in the studies so far carried out, developmental errors make up the majority of errors exhibited by second language learners_._ Examples of developmental errors are the misuse of third person –s ( she work hard, he doesn’t works hard), the –ed morpheme ( she teached us last year), of negation ( I not like it) and of interrogatives (I wonder what is she doing). Transfer or interlingual errors, or errors clearly attributable to first language influence, are also frequent. One example of a transfer error for learners from most romance languages learning English is adverb placement in instances like I have every day a cup of coffee in the morning.

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Developmental Sequences Research on SLA has revealed that there are important similarities between first language acquisition and second language acquisition. One important finding has been that in both first and second language acquisition there are sequences or ‘stages’ in the development of particular structures. Developmental sequences are similar across learners from different language backgrounds, from different ages, or from different learning contexts (formal instruction vs. naturalistic). In other words, second and foreign language learners in the process of learning the target language, pass through a series of identifiable stages in acquiring grammatical structures. One such example is provided by Italian tenses where learners irrespectively of mother tongue start by marking completion with past participles. The language that learners produce ( IL ) provides evidence that they acquire different morphological features in a fixed order and also that they pass through a sequence of developmental stages in the acquisition of specific morpho-syntactic features. The existence of developmental sequences is one of the most important findings of SLA research to date. There is a general acceptance in the SLA research community that the acquisition of some features of L2 grammar occurs in stages.

3. Tasks on the text

Glossary of related SLA terms from the Tutorial Look for definitions and explanations of the bold-faced terms and italicised terms in the tutorial. Then write definitions for them using your own words. If possible, write down synonyms of those terms.

1. Working in heterogeneous pairs (subject-matter teacher and language teacher) read the following instructions and split the work between the two of you. Be ready to share and compare the results with other pairs. (1) Look at the definition of interlanguage, developmental sequence in an Applied Linguistics dictionary. (2) Are there any related terms provided? (3) Who coined the term? (4) Are there any Applied Linguistics dictionaries in your mother tongue? If so, look the term up. (5) Then, look it up in a desk-reference bilingual dictionary^1 English-Your mother tongue and see whether the term can be found. (6) Are there any related terms provided? (7) Also, find out how the term has been translated into your mother tongue. You may want to use some reference SLA manuals such as Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) which might have been translated into your first language and check the term there (It has been translated into Spanish and Japanese at least). (8) Finally, find out whether there are any developmental sequences being described for your first language (there are developmental sequences being described for German, Italian, Spanish at least). Compare your answers with a different pair.
2. Discuss the relevance to CLIL programmes of the different types of learners’ errors and of the developmental stages. Why do language teachers as well as content teachers need to be aware of learner’s interlanguage? What is it that they may expect from their learners based on what they’ve read about learner’s interlanguage?
3. Read the following complaint by a language teacher and comment on it. This teacher severely criticises a couple of students that have been interviewing each other in order to find out some facts about each other’s friends. She interrupts them and says:

1 Richards, J. C., Platt, J., and Platt, H., 1992. This well-known dictionary of Applied Linguistics has recently been translated into Spanish: Diccionario de lingüística aplicada y enseñanza de lenguas. Versión española y adaptación de Carmen Muñoz Lahoz y Carmen Pérez Vidal, Editorial Ariel, Barcelona, 1997.

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6. One teacher notices that most of her students from Spanish and Catalan L1 background keep making this type of error in learning English when engaged in communicative tasks

I no work… I not work … I not want it… She don’t work… She not work

and she attributes these errors to the fact that Spanish as well as Catalan are pre-verbal languages, that is, that negation in Spanish and Catalan is made by placing the negative before the verb.

(Yo) no trabajo….. (Yo) no lo quiero….. (Ella) no trabaja (Jo) no treballo…. (Jo) no ho vull…….. (Ella) no treballa

and concludes that these errors are interlingual errors, that is transfer errors to be attributed to the transfer from learner’s L1 background.

Is this teacher right? What can you tell this teacher?

Has this teacher gathered enough evidence to support her claim? In order to reject her hypothesis,

what type of data would you recommend this teacher collect?

Are learners whose L1 is Spanish or Catalan the only ones who would most likely make this type

of error in learning the verb negation in English?

German L1 learners of English are said to move faster from pre-verbal negation (stage 1) to

post-verbal negation (stage 2). The rate is faster although the path is the same. How can we account for it? Is German also a pre-verbal language? If you do not know the answer, what would you predict based on the fact that German learners move sooner from stage 1 to stage 2 in learning verb negation in English?

Find out other ways of negating in different languages.

Would you expect the very same learners to make the very same type of errors if instead of

being engaged in communicative tasks, they were completing a more controlled written grammar exercise for which they had more time to plan and to rely on formal knowledge? Why?

7. These learners have been working on a science project to find out which type of detergents, biological or non-biological, eliminates stains better. They are bilingual students. They are fluent Catalan and Spanish speakers. They have been designing their own experiments to find out the answer for three types of stains: coffee stains, orange juice stains and oil stains. The team of teachers composed by a science teacher and a foreign language teacher has been monitoring the experiment. When it comes to report the results of the experiment this is what one group of students looking at the following grid of findings says:

Coffee stains Orange juice stains Oil stains Biological detergent X OK X Non biological detergent OK X OK

S: Non-biological detergent removes coffee stains better than biological detergent. Non-biological detergent remove stains in oil better. Non-biological detergent don’t remove orange juice well

What can you tell about this learner’s interlanguage?

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4. Individual reading

Lightbown, P. & Spada, N., “Learner Language”, in How languages are learned , Oxford University Press,1994: 71-90.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane “Grammar and Its Teaching: Challenging the Myths”. ERIC Digest. Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC. http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed406829.html

5. Evaluation and assessment

Choose the best answers and justify them in the right-hand column

1. Learners’ knowledge about the language (i.e., knowing a grammar rule) (a) usually results in (b) does not necessarily result in being able to apply it and use it in more open and free spontaneous contexts.
2. In learning a foreign language (i.e., English), most of the errors students from different L1 background (Spanish / German / Italian / French) will be making are (a) completely different (b) similar to one another.
3. The way (path and rate) each person acquires a second / foreign language is (a) completely different (b) largely similar to one another.
4. Most of the errors which foreign language learners make (a) are due to (b) are not due to interference / influence of their first language.
5. Students talking to their peers (a) will probably (b) will not likely pick up each others’ errors.
6. Languages (a) are acquired (b) are not acquired mainly through imitation.
7. An increase in the number of second or foreign language learners’ errors can be an indicator of (a) failure (b) progress.
8. As a rule, the 3rd^ person ‘s’ for the present simple in English is (a) more difficult to state (b) almost as difficult to state as the ‘s’ for plurals.
9. The 3 rd^ person ‘s’ for the present simple in English is (a) far more difficult to acquire than (b) as difficult to acquire as the ‘s’ for plurals.
10. The English – ed past and 3 rd^ person ‘s’ are examples of (a) morphemes from the developmental sequences which are acquired rather late (b) structures so simple to state that explicit grammar teaching can speed up the acquisition process.

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68

1. Initial activity

Group work

1. Discussion on the role of ‘knowing the rules’ in language learning.

2. Discussion on participants’ previous experience of language acquisition in relation to language-

focused or content-focused learning, e.g., when using the language for reading course textbooks or professional material, learning grammar rules, practising apologising in role playing activities, listening to radio broadcasts in a foreign language, etc.

2. Incidental and intentional learning

Two types of L2 knowledge are commonly discussed in second language acquisition: explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is made up of features of which the learner is aware and which s/he is able to verbalise. Implicit knowledge is intuitive and mostly works at an unconscious level. Explicit knowledge is often the initial result of language teaching, when the language input is manipulated by the teacher who presents some specific grammar rules, vocabulary items or any other language facts. In such cases learners pay conscious attention to what they are learning of the target language and they become conscious of what they know. Provided the focus of attention is on language, explicit knowledge develops independently of manner of presentation. Implicit knowledge can become explicit knowledge when, for example, learners analyse and reflect on some linguistic facts they implicitly know. This is what typically also occurs when native speakers recognise patterns and regularities in their automatic linguistic behaviour. For example, they may at times come up with an intuitive rule which accounts for their use of the definite article in English or the passé composé in French. Explicit language learning is thus necessarily intentional. It relies on the same general cognitive processes that underlie the learning of other types of knowledge such as history or mathematics. Two main processes seem to be responsible for the internalising of such knowledge: problem-solving

• that is the application of fundamentally conscious strategies to reach a solution – and memorisation
• the fixing of items in long-term memory through various techniques like repetition, associations, contextualization. For these reasons relatively simple rules like plural formation in English appear to be better suited to be learned intentionally, through conscious analysis first. More complex rules and language facts, like the use of the subjunctive in Italian or Spanish, are better handled by what appears to be a more robust type of learning, implicit learning. Implicit knowledge derives from unconscious, inductive acquisition processes. The learner picks up items from the linguistic environment which are frequent, salient, or similar to the mother tongue. The level of awareness during the process is very low or may be null as the learner typically focuses on a different activity than language learning itself. This is the reason why this acquisition modality is also called incidental learning. It is what happens during first language acquisition when the child acquires language while learning about himself or herself and the world. It is also what usually happens in immersion and CLIL programmes where students primarily concentrate on understanding, memorising facts or solving problems concerning the subject matter. In such situations language learning and the implicit knowledge that derives from it are by-products of other learning processes. They are powerful by-products, however, as they conform to the natural language learning processes that act on acquisition. They also respect developmental sequences that characterise language acquisition in a naturalistic setting. It has actually been suggested that learners acquire most language when they are involved in cognitively demanding tasks in which language plays a fundamental role. That is, when they are asked to solve non-linguistic problems using language like in a CLIL situation.

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Of course, awareness about language may naturally arise at any moment during the process. It is in fact quite difficult and fundamentally unproductive to separate between explicit and implicit learning. As with most human behaviours it is a matter of degree and as such it must be conceived during actual teaching. Language learning that derives from content teaching through a foreign language strongly relies on incidental learning, which is why immersion and CLIL programmes are welcomed as excellent opportunities for language learning. In this regard, it has been observed that “some of the most effective learning comes peripherally, ‘out of the corner of one’s eye’”, but the learner must be made aware that “learning is really taking place, even though it is not directly controlled” (Ehrman, 1996:183). Intentional learning, on the other hand, obviously remains the main objective of formal language teaching. In Krashen’s Input Hypothesis explicit learning plays only a limited role as a monitor, that is, a language corrector that operates when time is available, the rule is known and attention is on language rather than meaning. Recent research on second language acquisition, however, suggests that, given the right conditions, explicit learning can also help in developing implicit language knowledge. Moreover, explicit knowledge of some language items can incidentally help notice and thus internalise these items from the input. In this way explicit knowledge acts indirectly on implicit learning.

3. Tasks on the text

1) Discussion on which of the following activities foster incidental or intentional learning of the target language

1. Listening to the teacher’s instructions before carrying out a biology experiment.
2. Underlining all past tenses in a reading passage on 19th century German composers.
3. Memorising a list of words which refer to parts of the human body.
4. Drawing a diagram about imports and exports in one’s country as opposed to the country where the target language is spoken.
5. Practising some phonetic patterns in the target language (like the /i:/ and /i/ opposition in English - beat and bit ).
6. Taking notes when the history teacher is talking about the French Revolution in the target language.
7. Reading and underlining main ideas in a chapter from a philosophy textbook to study for a written exam.
8. Completing an open dialogue on arranging a visit to the botanical gardens with some school friends.

2) Task for language teachers

In language teaching methodology a distinction is often drawn between so called deductive and inductive approaches. In deductive language teaching, rules and generalisations about linguistic behaviour are presented first to be applied and practised later. In inductive teaching, learners are presented with selected instances of language from which they are asked to extract regularities.

Do the two approaches differ in terms of focusing on content or language? Do they promote implicit or explicit knowledge?

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While discussing Ellis’s position, participants should:

Go back to Unit 1 and provide examples of features which cannot be modified by teaching (e.g.

English negation and interrogation). Provide examples of areas that could benefit from explicit learning;

Identify tasks which can automatise language knowledge in a CLIL context (e.g. repeating parallel

structures such as the cell membrane surrounds the cell, the nuclear membrane surrounds the nucleus ).

6) Viewing task for content teachers (individual or group work)

Videos or extracts from videos where some instances of focus-on-language conducing to intentional or explicit learning are shown. Participants should identify which aspects of language are more likely to be treated explicitly in a CLIL class.

MAIN POINT In CLIL contexts content teachers often draw students’ attention to the meaning and use of technical vocabulary, sometimes to pronunciation, very rarely to grammar rules.

4. Individual reading

Reference text : Ellis, R., SLA Research and Language Teaching , Chap. 4: A theory of instructed second language acquisition, Oxford University Press, 1997: 107-133. (Individual work and class discussion)

Ask participants to read Ellis’s chapter in depth choosing the strategy they prefer to identify

ideas, concepts, notions that are more relevant to CLIL (listing, note-taking, drawing tree-diagrams, etc.)

Class discussion: compare various solutions and collectively prepare a list or a diagram of ideas

discussed in Ellis and relevant to CLIL.

5. Formative assessment

Formative assessment task (individual work): Answer the following questions in writing:

1. Identify a profile of the learner who will benefit most from intentional learning.
2. Identify a profile of the learner who will benefit most from incidental learning.
3. In what way can both intentional and incidental learning be promoted within CLIL?
4. Find analogies for implicit/explicit learning in subject-matter learning itself.
5. (pre-service teachers) Discuss implicit/explicit knowledge as applied to L1 teaching experienced in school.
6. ( in-service teachers ) Discuss implicit/explicit knowledge as applied to L1 teaching in your school.

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Unit 3

Input Characteristics 4 hours

OBJECTIVES 1. To reflect on the importance of input and its different types

2. To reflect on the role of output and negotiation

PROCEDURES 1. Initial activity

2. Introductory text

3. Tasks on the text for language teachers, content teachers and

both; in-group, pair-work text-based discussions, individual

work

4. Individual reading of recommended articles/book chapters;

class discussion

5. Assessment (optional)

WORKING

MATERIALS 1. “What is input ?”

2. Lyster, R. & Ranta, L., “Corrective Feedback and Learner”

Uptake: Negotiation of Forms in Communicative Classrooms,

Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19 , 1, 1997: 37-

3. Wong-Fillmore, L., “When does teacher talk work as input?”,

in Gass, S.M. & Madden, C.G. (eds.), Input in Second Language

Acquisition, Newbury House, Cambridge, Mass, 1985: 17-

EXPECTED

OUTCOMES 1. A list of illustrations of comprehensible input provision and

output sequences in the classroom (optional)

2. Glossary of key terms