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Running head: MUTED VOICE AND FEMALE COMMUNICATION PATTERNS PERCEIVED MUTED VOICE AND ITS IMPACT ON FEMALE COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES IN THE WORKPLACE _________________________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty in Communication and Leadership Studies School of Professional Studies Gonzaga University __________________________________________________ Under the Supervision of Dr. Carolyn Cunningham Under the Mentorship of Dr. Heather Crandall ________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Communication and Leadership Studies ____________________________________________________ By Rachel Lepchitz December 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
- Statement of the Problem
- Definition of Terms Used
- Organization of Remaining Chapters
- CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
- Philosophical Assumptions
- Theoretical Basis
- Review of the Literature
- Rationale
- CHAPTER 3: SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
- The Scope of the Study
- Methodology of the Study
- Reliability
- Validity
- Ethical Considerations
- CHAPTER 4: THE STUDY
- Introduction
- Results
- Analysis
- Discussion
- CHAPTER 5: SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS
- Limitations of the Study
- Further Study Recommendations
- Conclusions
- REFERENCES
- APPENDIX
This study focuses on a select group of females who perceive their voice as silenced in the organization. This group is referred to as the intra-group and research will address how their perceptions of muted voice impact their communication techniques. This study considers both email and face-to-face communication techniques. Face-to-face is considered any communication in which all parties are physically present. This will also be referred to as FTF. Computer-mediated communication is discussed in both the literature and study and is also called CMC. Emoticon use is investigated and is any form of symbol used to represent a feeling in an attempt to add richness to CMC. This is commonly seen as a smiley face or sad face—:-), :-(. Mutedness describes a level or degree of muted voice and is supplemented with silenced. In some cases women self-silence and this is intentionally done to suppress their own voice. Organization of Remaining Chapters This study begins with discussion of muted group theory and how it is applicable to the workplace. Following this groundwork, connections will be made between mutedness and patterns of communication common among females. Many of these techniques seem to overlap between email and face-to-face communication. Chapter two includes the literature review. It argues the importance and need for the questions posed in this study. The scope of the study and qualitative methodology will be outlined in chapter three before introducing the research results. Chapter four summarizes the results of interview transcripts and discuss themes that emerged during data collection and analysis. Analysis considers a new level of muted voice based on previous literature. Concluding thoughts in chapter five address limitations to this study, future research possibilities and consider a new element to muted group theory.
Chapter 2: Literature Review This literature review discusses muted group theory and how the theory can be applied to understand the communication techniques women use in workplace situations where they could be lacking power. It then discusses patterns seen in email and face-to-face communications. Unlike many studies reviewed, this work is interested in communication patterns not in relation to gender differences but rather the female’s level of perceived muted voice. Increased verbal communication has a positive relationship with being perceived as more powerful (Brescoll, 2011). If women are muted in the workplace, are they in a perpetual powerless position? Kramarae (2005) advises researchers to ask difficult questions to make gender issues more visible in society. Research focuses on the experience of subordinate groups, which in many organizational settings continues to be females (Kissack, 2010). This review first addresses the philosophical and theoretical foundations for the study. Examination of research on female communication reveal a wide array of comparative studies of male-female communication, but concludes it lacks an understanding of the root cause of such differences in workplace communication and a way to navigate them better if aware. Philosophical Assumptions Women’s moral decisions are based on levels of responsibility and care in relationships while men focus on justice as the foundation for issues of morality (Gilligan, 1982). These two contrasting views illustrate differing voices between men and women. Gilligan discusses the differences to highlight “a problem of interpretation rather than to represent a generalization about either sex” (p. xxxv). Women see the world through a lens of relationship and connection rather than rules and justice (Gilligan, 1982). Male experience dominates arenas of public discourse, like the workplace, stifling the female worldview (Gilligan, 1995). The stifling of the
structures” (Lindloff & Taylor, 2011, p. 53). According to Kramarae (2005), when focused on gender communication, muted group theory suggests the following: In many situations, women are more constrained than are men in what they can say, when and with what results. Accepted language practices have been constructed primarily by men in order to express their experiences. This means that women are constrained (muted). (p. 55) The theory aids in understanding the struggles women may face as a non-dominant group in certain workplace settings. Review of the Literature Organizations are historically patriarchal and masculine language dominates even unbiased attempts at communication like employee evaluations (Kissack, 2010). Evaluations are written in male-preferential language “thus holding women’s performance to masculine standards” (Kissack, 2010, p. 543). It is this type of adaptation to the dominant language that renders feminine voice mute. Feminine voice, which is characterized as utilizing relational communication techniques, is viewed as inferior when compared to the task oriented communication patterns of men (Brescoll, 2011; Holmes & Marra, 2004). Kissack (2010) asserts three assumptions of which muted theory is based upon: members of differing social groups have differing experiences, dominant groups exist over the others, and inferior groups must accommodate their language to meet that of the dominant group. This assimilation process forces those of the subordinate group to function in a system that is unrepresentative of their experiences (Orbe, 1996). Orbe (1996) focuses on more than gender and collectively assesses the reaction to mutedness from the perspective of marginalized groups such as minorities, women, and homosexuals. This method is an applicable framework for the research questions
proposed in this study. The degree to which women are muted has a direct impact on power in the organization (Baker, 1991b). The result of male dominated power in the workplace could cause stereotypical views of female behavior, such as being compassionate, motherly, nurturing, and gentle, which increases female mutedness (Kissack, 2010). Gray’s popular book Men are from Mars; Women are from Venus (2002) has dangerously perpetuated such stereotypes (Ahmad & Rethinam, 2010). The self-help book attempts to educate readers on gender communication differences. Since the publishing of the book, the title has become a metaphor for the expression of gender differences (Ahmad & Rethinam, 2010). One stereotype says that women interrupt less often than men and those rare interruptions are less assertive than a man’s interruptions. This generalization and several others are found false in Ahmad & Rethinam’s research. Researchers also concluded against Gray’s claim that women self-disclose more than men. This is only true in conversations with other women, and men actually talk more in mixed-sex dyads (Ahmad & Rethinam, 2010). Baker (1991) asserts why application of theories like communication accommodation are unsuccessful in understanding the delicate balance of power in the workplace. Baker makes the case for reciprocal accommodation or sociolinguistic theory when stating that the female could alter her communication strategies. This sort of accommodation is the exact reference scholars in muted theory point to regarding the dissonance a female might experience (Kissack, 2010). Meares, Oetzel, Torres, Derkacs, and Ginossar (2004) address four premises of muted group theory.
- The different experiences of each group results in differing perceptions of the world.
- Privileged members “determine the dominant discourse for that society, reinforcing their worldview…
found the emergence of “communication strategies that are consistent with their self image yet do not disrupt the expectations of the dominant society” (p. 159). Orbe’s findings reveal that participants felt silenced by people in more powerful positions. “The stated cause of their silence varied—age, ethnicity, gender, affection/sexual orientation, or class — but hinged on their perceived powerlessness in different situations” (Orbe, 1996). Orbe’s study identified 12 communication strategies non-dominant groups may use when communicating with the dominant group. One strategy is the use of respectful communication to intentionally avoid being perceived as threatening or too assertive (Orbe, 1996). This respectful type of communication is also associated with affiliative language. Communication Power Struggles. Research over the past decade reveals that women’s verbal strategies are more relational and are perceived as less powerful than male forms of communication (Baker, 1991a). Relational discourse and affiliative language are used interchangeably in the literature. Both are forms of speech focused on “emphasizing the relationship and interaction with others” (Baker, 1991a). Research relating to gendered discourse is exhaustive. Among those are studies that make valid arguments revealing a woman’s regular use of emotional or relational discourse (Allen & Judd, 2007; Bakar, Mohamad, & Mustafa, 2007; Calnan & Davidson, 1998; Colley & Todd, 2002; Kissack, 2010; Leaper & Ayres, 2007a). Relational practice is considered support work that a woman does to keep things moving in the organization (Holmes & Marra, 2004). Because it is a behind the scenes type of job, much like housekeeping, it has been associated with feminine discourse (Holmes & Marra, 2004). For simplicity, relational practice (RP) is most easily considered as work that preserves relationships in the workplace. Holmes and Marra’s (2004) research shows that both men and women enact RP. Thanks to gender stereotypes, even when men do enact RP it is perceived as
feminine behavior (Holmes & Marra, 2004). “Gender is a socio-cultural category, and, regardless of whether we are biologically perceived and categorized as women or men, we are continuously constructing relatively masculine or feminine social identities in our ongoing social interactions” (Holmes & Marra, 2004, pp. 391-392). This perception has a direct implication on power in the workplace, which results in potential mutedness. It enforces a cyclical pattern of powerlessness that recreates gender differences in power in the organization (Raggins & Winkle, 2011). Researchers note the double standard created and the challenges women face when going beyond those stereotypical norms. Women are discouraged and discriminated against for acting outside the stereotypical feminine role. “Thus, assigned to a set of language rules that marginalizes their words, women are doubly restricted from expressing their voice” (Kissack, 2011, p. 545). Women must balance whether to be an effective professional or stay inside the lines of stereotypical feminine behavior (Allen, 2011; Barker & Zifcak, 1999; Kissack, 2011). Studies of female communication strategies are limited because researchers consistently focus on gender differences between women and men. It is understandable a variable is needed to comparatively test female communication patterns; however, it is unfortunate that scholars so often choose to use male patterns as the comparison. Assuming that men still dominate organizational leadership positions (Allen, 2011), this limits our understanding of honest female communication because the female voice is stifled. This thesis removes gender comparisons and focuses on an intra-group of women who perceive themselves as muted. While prior research is lacking in this type of intra-group study, it aids in our understanding that the muted experience occurs throughout the workplace setting. This thesis seeks to investigate the communication patterns this intra-group employs in both face-to-face (FTF) and email communication.
situations. Affiliative strategies were more advantageous when requesting charitable contributions (Baker, 1991a). In the written form, the use of feminine style language is not limited to only women (Thomson, Murachver, & Green, 2001). A study of emails to and from friends showed no connection to gender and use of affiliative language (Thomson et al., 2001). Participants in the Thomson et al. (2001) study were equals and did not experience the social hierarchy needed for mutedness to occur. This study supports the notion that it is the perceived level of mutedness, not gender alone, that results in certain communication techniques. “Thus if women tend to use powerless language more often than do men, it may be because women are more likely than men to be in positions in which they lack power” (Leaper & Robnett, 2011, p. 130 ). Regardless of the possible advantages of affiliative language, when compared with men’s instrumental language, which is task-oriented, women are perceived as less powerful (Baker, 1991a). This leads to a muted situation in which women must assimilate to the dominant language; however, it appears the affiliative role is one that women could be forced to play (Baker, 1991a). In both spoken and written settings women face a difficult decision regarding whether to assimilate to the dominant language or stay in an ill-perceived powerless communication role. When women act outside their socially prescribed form of communication they are often discriminated against (Kissack, 2010). Female web designers report negative reaction to their participation in a male-dominated realm (Kennedy, 2000). A specific female web developer in Kennedy’s study (2000) faced the same label as what Kissack (2010) describes when women attempt to adapt to male-standards. “They find themselves ostracized for being cold and ‘bitchy’” (Kissack, 2010, p. 543) due to the conflicting view of how a woman actually behaves
versus what society expects (Heilman, 2001; Ragins & Winkel, 2011). This dissonance perpetuates female muted voice. Brescoll (2011) concludes that a fear of backlash prevents a woman from adopting instrumental or more assertive language. The research found that high-powered women who spoke disproportionately more than men faced backlash. Participants rated a female CEO who talked longer than others as less competent and less suitable for leadership than a male CEO who spoke the same amount (Brescoll, 2011). The women studied were found to reduce their amount of talking time to that of a subordinate colleague. This finding is contradicted when talk time is studied in relation to status of the speaker rather than the gender (Dubrovsky, Kiesler, & Sethna, 1991). Research considering the difference of decision-making via FTF versus computer- mediated communication finds high-status members speak more than those of lower status, thus conforming to social order not gender (Dubrovsky et al., 1991). While Dubrovsky et al. (1991) attempt to recreate status differences by gathering participants of diverse education, their study is limited in the fact that it lacks true workplace hierarchies. Concerning computer mediated communication (CMC), Dubrovsky et al. (1991) note that email seems to have an equalization effect. The “equalization phenomenon” assumes that “with less evaluation anxiety, high-status and expert persons have reduced threat to their position and low-status and inexpert persons have less fear of rejection” (p. 125). In their study, topics that would place the more educated participant at an advantage during FTF communications had the opposite effect in email. Thus email puts everyone at equal status. This study is dated and the increased use of email as well as development of emoticons reveals a need to consider further study of email communication. The equalization effect could be refuted in studies that research the use of emoticons. Research has shown that women employ a higher number of emoticons than men (Wolf, 2000).
to be silenced. Kissack (2010) noted the absence of such study as it relates to email communication; however, speech and email have many similar features. Email bears linguistic similarities to writing and speech (Colley & Todd, 2002). It is reasonable to associate the increase of CMC in the workplace with an increased possibility of mutedness among female employees. Recognizing the contradictory findings among studies, Leaper and Robnett (2011) suggest an alternative to the gender differences approach be used when interpreting tentative speech. Gilligan (1982) calls for research that elucidates the effects different perspectives have in the workplace where communication could be impeded as a result of mistranslation. Based on the research discussed, muted group theory focusing on relational speech in both FTF communication and through emoticon use in email is the best contender. Muted group theorists argue that the dominant and subordinate group each has its own perceptions of the world that determine group members’ communication strategies (Kramarae, 2005). The purpose of this study is to examine communication patterns among females who perceive themselves as muted. The study focuses on this intra-group of women in the workplace setting. Previous research compares female communication with male communication, which does little to understand how women communicate from the perspective of the subordinate group. Women walk a difficult path regarding the use of emotional communication in the workplace and must carefully consider how it should appropriately be displayed (Ragins & Winkle, 2011, p. 385). The purpose of this study is to understand the direction of this path depending on the degree of perceived mutedness. The literature reveals two needs for future research: (a) to apply muted theory to female communication; (b) to consider only the intra- group’s communication without making comparisons to the dominant male group. This study advances the following questions:
RQ1: How does the perceived level of muted voice in the workplace impact a woman’s use of relational speech in FTF and email communication? RQ2: What workplace situations create an increased perception of muted voice?
