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Chapter 4 Notes Consciousness: sleep, dreams, hypnosis and drugs
What is consciousness? Consciousness- a person’s awareness of everything that is going on around them at any given moment, which is used to organize behavior. Internal and external activities. Daniel Dennett claims that there is no single stream of consciousness but rather multiple “channels”, each of which is handling its own tasks. Definition of consciousness Your thoughts, sensations and feelings are included in your consciousness. Much of people’s time awake is spent in a state called waking consciousness, in which their thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized and they feel alert. Many times in daily activities and life, people experience states of consciousness that differ from this organized waking state. These variations are known as “altered states of consciousness.” Altered States of Consciousness An altered state of consciousness occurs when there is a shift in the quality or pattern of your mental activity. This includes decreases and increases.
Increased alertness - when under the influence of a stimulant (cocaine, ADHD meds, caffeine, etc.) Daydreaming, being hypnotized or achieving a meditative state are usually considered being altered states. The most common altered state is sleep. Altered States: Sleep The Biology of Sleep Biological rhythms are natural cycles of activities that the body must go through. Periodic physiological fluctuations in body. The Rhythms of Life: Circadian Rhythms The Circadian Rhythm is the sleep-wake cycle. The sleep-wake cycle is controlled by the hypothalamus. Set by zeitgebers ( time giver) , external cues that help reset our biological clock. If we had no external cues, we would be on a 25 hour sleep/ wake cycle. Behavioral or physiological cycle that takes place every 24 hours. The Role of the Hypothalamus: The Mighty Mite The release of melatonin is influenced by a structure deep within the hypothalamus in an area called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the internal clock that tells people when to wake and to sleep. The SCN is light sensitive. When daylight fades, the SCN tells the pineal gland to secrete melatonin. As the amount accumulates, the person feels sleepy.
According to the adaptive theory, sleep is a product of evolution. o It proposes that animals and humans evolved different sleep patterns to avoid being present during their predators’ normal hunting times. Conservation of energy o It is costly to be awake and alert all day long o Sleeping does conserve energy o Lower rate of energy processes The Restorative Theory of Sleep The restorative theory states that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body. Most bodily growth and repair occurs during the deepest stages of sleep, when those necessary enzymes are secreted in their highest amounts. Replenish chemicals, repair cellular damage, growth Brain Plasticity Changes in structure and organization of brain o Development o Learning & memory consolidation We take things from short-term memory and put them into long-term memory. The things we learn are being mirrored as we sleep.
How Much Sleep Do People Need? Most young adults need about 7-9 hours of sleep within each 24- hour period. Some people only need 4-5 hours, while others need more than 9. As we age, we need around only 6 hours. How to Study the Stages of Sleep
Polysomnography
EEG
o Records electrical potentials across scalp
Electrooculogram (EOG)
o Records eye movements
Electromyogram (EMG)
o Records muscle movements of head & body. EEGs
Massive electrical changes occur throughout the brain at all times.
EEG can monitor this activity and determine what stage of sleep a
person is in. o Wakefulness
Fast, irregular, low-amplitude electrical activity
o Sleep
Slow, regular, high-amplitude waves
The Stages of Sleep
Breathing becomes more shallow and irregular Sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity lasting only a second or two. o Theta waves are still predominant in this stage; also K- complexes. o K-Complexes are generally in response to a noise. If people are awakened during this stage, they will be aware of having been asleep. Non-REM Stage 3 and Stage 4: Delta Waves Roll In Called Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS) During stage 3, delta waves make up only about 20-50% of brain- wave pattern. Once Delta waves account for more than 50% of total brain activity, a person is said to have entered stage 4, the deepest stage of sleep. Growth hormones are released from the pituitary and reach their peak levels. The body is at its lowest level of functioning. Children are harder to wake up when in this state than adults. Boys sleep more deeply than girls do due to testosterone. It takes about 90 mins to cycle through the 4 stages into REM. What Happens in REM Sleep? Rapid Eye Moment (REM) Sleep Paradoxical Sleep o EEG & other physiological indicators resemble wakefulness o Voluntary Muscles inhibited (REM paralysis)
After being in Stage 4, the sleeping person will go back up through Stage 3, Stage 2 and then into a stage in which body temperature increases to near waking levels, the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids, the <3 beats much faster, and brain waves resemble beta waves. When a person in REM sleep is awakened, he or she almost always reports being in a dream state. 90% of dreams take place in REM sleep. o Vivid dreaming occurs NREM dreams tend to be more like thoughts about daily occurrences and far shorter than REM dreams. Voluntary muscles are paralyzed during REM sleep, which is known as REM paralysis. A Night’s Sleep First 4 hours mostly NREM o Stages 3-4 dominant REM dominates hours 5- o NREM lighter (stage 2) Periods of REM occur at 90-min intervals (approximately 4-6 per night.) The Need for REM Sleep After a very physically demanding day, people tend to spend more time in NREM sleep than usual. After an emotional day, more people spend time in REM sleep. If deprived of REM sleep, a person will experience greatly increased amounts of REM sleep the next night, which is known as REM rebound.
Nightmares: bad dreams occurring during REM sleep. o Children tend to have more nightmares than adults do because they spend more of their sleep in the REM state. REM behavior disorder: A rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares. This is usually seen in men over age 60. Stage 4 Sleep Disorders Sleepwalking/somnambulism- occurring during deep sleep, an episode of moving around or walking around in one’s sleep. o Sleepwalking occurs in about 20% of the population. o It is more common in childhood and occurs more frequently in boys. o Many grow out of their sleepwalking by adolescence. Night Terrors Night terrors: relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear and screams or runs around during sleep without waking fully. o NREM is the domain of night terrors. Insomnia Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep or get a good quality of sleep. Some of the psychological causes of insomnia are anxiety, worrying or trying too hard to sleep. Some of the physiological causes are too much caffeine, indigestion, or aches & pains.
Sleep Apnea Sleep apnea: disorder in which the person stop breathing for nearly half a minute or more. Snoring is often associated with sleep apnea. Sleep apnea can prevent a person from getting a good night’s rest. Sleep apnea can cause heart problems. Many infants who die of SIDS were never diagnosed with sleep apnea. Narcolepsy Narcolepsy: sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning. o Affects 1 in every 2,000 people. Cataplexy: sudden loss of muscle tone. o Stage 1 sleep may also occur in the narcoleptic person. Dysomnia: difficulty falling and/or staying asleep o Insomnia o Sleep apnea (they stop breathing) o Narcolepsy Parasomnias: o Night Terrors (generally happens in stage 3 or 4 sleep.) o Sleep talking o Somnambulism (sleep walking; stage 3 or 4 sleep)
activation by the brain stem of cortical cells during REM sleep periods. o Dreams are a result of synthesis of random neural signals
Activation-information-mode model (AIM): revised version of the
activation synthesis explanation of dreams in which information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams. o Accounts for why recent real-life experiences can be found in dreams.
One reason as to why our dreams don’t make sense is because our
frontal cortex is inactive. Altered States: Hypnosis Hypnosis: state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion. Four elements: o The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said. o The person is told to relax and feel tired o The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept suggestions easily o The person is told to use vivid imagination You cannot hypnotize someone who is not willing to be hypnotized. o Only 80% can be and of those, only 40% are “good candidates.” Theories of Hypnosis
Dissociation theory—split consciousness o Immediate conscious mind affected by hypnosis o “Hidden observer” aware of what is going on
Social-cognitive theory—acting the part
o People who are hypnotized are not in an altered state, but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation. Altered States: Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive drugs: drugs that alter thinking, perception & memory o Categorized based on predominant action or behavioral effect
Physical dependence: body is unable to function w/o the drug
o Drug tolerance: larger and larger doses needed to reach initial effects of drug o Withdrawal: symptoms associated with not taking drug
Psychological dependence: belief that drug is needed to function
emotionally and psychologically o Any drug can produce psychological dependence (due to positive emotions tied to it) Addiction o Physical or psychological dependence or both. Psychoactive drugs increased dopamine (reward pathways in our brain; pleasure center) levels in brain’s reward pathways. Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants
Class of drugs that increases central nervous system activity
Hallucinogens
Drugs that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of
relaxation and intoxication
Examples (manufactured)
o LSD o PCP—could be any class of drug depending upon the amount. o MDMA (Ecstasy) – dehydrates you easily
Examples (Natural)
o Mescaline (Peyote; Indian rituals) o Psilocybin (shrooms) o Marijuana Ch. 5: Learning Definition of Learning
Learning is any permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice. “Relatively permanent” refers to the fact that when people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they’ve learned. Once people learn something, it may be present somewhere in memory in physical form. Maturation is due to biology, not experience. Behaviorism o Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors. o Discounts importance of mental activity Types of Learning
Associative Learning & Conditioning
o Classic Conditioning
Association between 2 stimuli
o Operant Conditioning
Association between behavior & consequence (what’s
in it for me? our behaviors are driven by the consequences of those behaviors.)
Observational Learning
o Observing and imitating another’s behavior
UCS (Ice Cream) - UCR (Pleasure)
CS (Ice Cream truck song) - UCS (Ice cream) -- UCR (Pleasure)
CS (Ice cream truck song) ------------------ CR (Pleasure)
Conditioned Stimulus must come before UCS
CS & UCS must be close together in time
NS must be paired with UCS several times
CS should be distinctive for best effect
It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical Conditioning
Reflex: an involuntary response, one that is not under personal
control or choice.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist who pioneered the empirical
study of the basic principles of a particular kind of learning. Pavlov and the Salivating Dog
Classical conditioning: learning to make an involuntary (reflex)
response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex. Elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
o A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response.
Food leads to drooling.
o In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the food is the UCS.
Unconditioned Response
o An involuntary (reflex) response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus.
The drooling occurred due to the food
o In Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation to the food is the UCR.
Conditioned Stimulus
o Neutral Stimulus: stimulus that has no effect on the desired response.
A telephone ring
o Conditioned Stimulus: stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus.
The bell is the CS and the food is the UCS.
o Conditioned Response: learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.
The dog will now drool once it hears the bell.
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization: the tendency to respond to a stimulus
that is only similar to the original conditioned response with the conditioned response. o Little Albert hates white furry things now.
Stimulus discrimination: the tendency to stop making a
generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Extinction o Weakening/disappearance of CR after removal of UCS
