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NS502 Exam 2 Questions With 100%
Correct Answers
5 ways the endocrine system maintains homeostasis - ANSWER 1. Alters metabolism
- Regulates growth and development
- Regulates reproduction
- Regulates circadian rhythms
- Regulates activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
Difference in receptor location for both water soluble hormones and lipid soluble hormones - ANSWER Water soluble hormones bind to receptors on cell membranes.
Lipid soluble hormones diffuse through cell membranes and then bind to receptors inside the cell
Why can water soluble hormones not be administered orally - ANSWER Because they are destroyed by digestion
Endocrine glands - ANSWER Secrete into interstitial fluid and then diffuse into the blood stream
Exocrine glands - ANSWER Secrete products into ducts which then carry secretion to target sites
How are hormones inactivated and excreted from the body - ANSWER Inactivated by the liver and excreted by either faeces or kidneys
3 stimuli that trigger hormone secretion - ANSWER 1. Signals from the nervous system - stimulus triggers an action potential
- Levels of chemicals in the blood - BGL rise causing the release of insulin
- Other hormones - TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine
Two hormones released from the posterior pituitary and where are they produced - ANSWER Oxytocin and antidiuretic and both produced in the hypothalamus
Six hormones produced by the anterior pituitary - ANSWER 1. Growth hormone, GH
- Thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH
- Follicle stimulating hormone, FSH
- Luteinizing hormone, LH
- Prolactin
Neurosecretory cell - ANSWER A neuron/ nerve cell that translates neural signals into chemical stimuli
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - ANSWER Hormone produced by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles.
Oxytocin (OT) - ANSWER Increases the contractions of the uterus during birth and promotes the release of breast milk
Growth Hormone (GH) - ANSWER Increases muscle mass
Stimulates tissue repair
Stimulates the breakdown of fat and rise in blood glucose levels
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - ANSWER Females: initiates the growth of follicles which nurtures the developing oocytes and secretes oestrogen from the cells lining the follicle
Males: stimulates the testes to produce sperm
Luteinizing hormone (LH) - ANSWER Females: stimulates ovulation and promotes formation of the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone and some oestrogen
Males: causes the secretion of testosterone in the testes
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - ANSWER Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - ANSWER Stimulates secretion of thyroxine from thyroid gland which increases the metabolic rate
Prolactin - ANSWER Stimulates milk production
Dwarfism - ANSWER Results from hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood
Giantism - ANSWER Results from hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood
Acromegaly - ANSWER Enlargement of the extremities which results from hypersecretion of growth hormone during adulthood
Hypothyroidism - ANSWER Low levels of thyroxine causes slow heart rate, low body temperature, lethargy and weight gain
Three uses for calcium in the body - ANSWER Transmission of nerve impulses
Muscle contraction
Blood clotting
Three actions of parathyroid hormone - ANSWER Stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone and raise blood calcium levels
Enhances reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys
Activates vitamin D to become calcitriol which is needed to absorb calcium from food
Tubular reabsorption - ANSWER The process of returning substances from the filtrate back into the blood
Calcitonin - ANSWER Lowers blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclast activity which results in more Ca2+ being deposited in bone and less in the blood
Another name for calcitriol - ANSWER Active vitamin D
How does calcitriol sustain normal blood calcium levels - ANSWER Increases the amount of calcium and phosphate absorbed from the intestine
Enhances the actions of the parathyroid hormone which reabsorbs bone
Hormone which lowers blood glucose levels - ANSWER Insulin
Hormone which raises blood glucose levels - ANSWER Glucagon
Which type of cells secrete insulin - ANSWER Beta cells
Which type of cells secrete glucagon - ANSWER Alpha
Insulin - ANSWER Produced when bloody glucose levels are high and causes an increased uptake of glucose into cells therefore lowering bloody glucose
Glucagon - ANSWER Produced when blood glucose levels are low and stimulates liver and muscle cells to begin the breakdown of glycogen into glucose which is then released into the blood
Three hormones other than glucagon that raise blood glucose levels - ANSWER Adrenaline - raises BGL so that glucose is available for an emergency
Growth hormone - stimulates lipolysis so that lipids are available for growth leaving glucose to be available for the brain
Cortisol - makes additional glucose available (gluconeogenesis) in order to deal with stressful situations
Melatonin - ANSWER Produced in the pineal gland and contributes to the natural body clock by raising levels at night causing sleep and then decreasing levels before waking
Location of the pineal gland - ANSWER Center of brain - attached to the roof of the 3rd ventricle
Three stages of stress response - ANSWER Alarm stage (fight or flight), resistance stage, exhaustion stage
The main hormone for stage 1 of the stress response - ANSWER Adrenaline
The name hormones for stage 2 of the stress response - ANSWER Cortisol, growth hormone, thyroxine
What are the long term effects of prolonged cortisol - ANSWER Causes wasting away of muscle, suppression of the immune system, ulceration of the GI tract, failure of the pancreatic beta cells which produce insulin. Therefore people under stress are at a
Hormone that stimulates glycogenesis - ANSWER Insluin
Hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis - ANSWER Glucagon and adrenaline
Hormone that stimulates gluconeogenesis - ANSWER Cortisol and glucagon
Lipogenesis - ANSWER When a larger amount of calories are consumed than what is needed int he body, glucose and amino acids are converted into triglycerides by the liver and stored in adipose tissue which lowers blood glucose levels
Hormone that stimulates lipogenesis - ANSWER Insulin
Where is glycogen stored - ANSWER Liver and skeletal muscle cells
Two products resulting from lipolysis - ANSWER Glycerol and fatty acids
Role of glycerol - ANSWER Gets converted into pyruvate and enters the Krebs cycle to produce ATP. Can also undergo gluconeogenesis and be converted into glucose
Role of fatty acids - ANSWER Get converted into acetyl coenzyme A (CoA) in the liver which enters the Krebs cycle to produce ATP
What are ketone bodies produced from? - ANSWER When levels of CoA (result of the breakdown of fatty acids) are to high for the Krebs cycle to process, the liver converts CoA into Ketone bodies
What causes an increase of Ketones? - ANSWER Conditions of severe starvation or uncontrolled diabetes
Clinical signs and symptoms of excess ketones - ANSWER The lungs would give the breath a sweet smell of acetone, ketones would be at a high levels in the urine and blood pH would be lowered
What does excess ketones causes - ANSWER Ketones are acidic therefore an excess production would result in the blood pH lowering and causing metabolic acidosis (ketoacidosis)
Amino acid uses - ANSWER Synthesized to make new proteins to build/ repair body tissues
Excess amino acids are broken down by the liver and used for the production of ATP
Can be converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis) and triglycerides (lipogenesis)
End product of amino acid catabolism - ANSWER The liver converts ammonia into urea which is then excreted in the urine
2 tests that can be done to check the levels of urea - ANSWER Urinalysis and a blood test
What would elevated levels of urea indicate - ANSWER Decreased renal function
Define basal metabolic rate - ANSWER The rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to keep vital functions going, such as breathing and keeping warm.
4 factors that would increase BMR - ANSWER Exercise
Hormones (thyroxine, insulin, growth hormone, testosterone)
Ingestion of food
Higher body temperature
Normal blood glucose levels - ANSWER 70-110 mg/dL
When the resistance stage fails to combat the stressor, the body moves into a state of exhaustion however the hormones of the resistance reaction continue to be released
2 functions of the ovaries - ANSWER Produce oestrogen and progesterone
Produce the secondary oocyte and expel it into the abdominopelvic cavity (ovulation)
What is contained in the ovarian cortex - ANSWER Ovarian follicles
What is contained in the ovarian medulla - ANSWER Blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves
The hormone secreted from the follicles of the ovaries - ANSWER Oestrogen
The two sections of the fallopian tubes - ANSWER Ampulla and isthmus
Function of the uterine tubes - ANSWER To transport the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
Pathway of an oocyte from the ovary to the vagina - ANSWER Ovary - abdominopelvic cavity - fimbriae - ampulla - isthmus - uterus - cervix - vagina
Pathway sperm take reach to oocyte for fertilisation - ANSWER Vagina - cervix - uterus - isthmus - ampulla
How does the oocyte move from the ovary to the uterine tubes - ANSWER Oocyte is transported from the ovary to the uterine tubes by fimbriae, at the time of ovulation the uterine tube bends and drapes over the fimbriae which then stiffen and sweep the ovarian surface. Cilia on the fimbriae create a current to carry the ovum into the tubes
How is the oocyte transported in the tubes - ANSWER Cilia and peristalsis
Where in the fallopian tubes does fertilisation occur - ANSWER Ampulla
2 factors that may impede the movement of the oocyte in the uterine tube - ANSWER Scar tissue in the uterine tube caused by pelvic inflammatory disease, may block or narrow the tube leading to sterility or the potential for the tubes to be narrowed to much that the sperm can get through however the zygote is to large to reach the uterus leading to an ectopic pregnancy.
Smoking reduces the activity of cilia and can slow down the transport of the fertilised ovum to the uterus leading to it developing in the tubes - ectopic pregnancy
Three functions of the uterus - ANSWER Route for transport of sperm
Receives, retains and nourishes the fertilised ovum (blastocyst)
Muscular walls contract during labour to expel the fetus
3 layers of the uterus - ANSWER Perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium
Function of the endometrium - ANSWER Has 2 layers, basal and functional
Functional layer is shed during menstruation
Basal layer replaces the functional layer after it has shed each month
Function of the myometrium - ANSWER 3 layers of smooth muscle which expel the fetus during labour
Function of the perimetrium - ANSWER External layer that forms part of the visceral peritoneum
How does the functional layer of the endometrium regenerate and what happens to this layer during mensuration - ANSWER Spiral arterioles supply the functional layer of the endometrium and each month progesterone causes them to spasm which restricts blood flow to the functional layer causing it to die and shed. After menstruation spiral
Stimulus for production of oxytocin and type of feedback loop - ANSWER The stimulus is the baby breast feeding and it is an example of a positive feedback loop because the stimulus causes more secretion of oxytocin
Stimulus for the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone - ANSWER Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Four phases of the menstrual cycle - ANSWER Menstruation (1-5)
Pre-ovulatory phase (6-13)
Ovulation (14)
Post ovulatory phase (15-28)
Phase 1: Menstruation - ANSWER Low levels of progesterone cause the spiral arterioles to constrict causing the functional layer of the endometrium to die and shed
Phase 2: pre-ovulatory phase - ANSWER Increase in oestrogen causes development of mature follicle in ovary, surrounding follicular cells produce and secrete oestrogen. A new functional layer of endometrium develops in the uterus, glands and spiral arterioles grow into it as it thickens
Phase 3: Ovulation - ANSWER A surge in the level of LH causes the ovary to release the secondary oocyte into the abdominopelvic cavity. The follicle collapses and becomes the corpus luteum. An increase in oestrogen thins the cervical fluid for sperm
Phase 4: Post ovulatory phase - ANSWER In the ovary, the corpus luteum releases large amounts of progesterone and some oestrogen. If the ovum is is not fertilised, the corpus luteum becomes a non functional corpus albicans. In the uterus, progesterone and oestrogen from the corpus luteum promote thickening of the endometrium in preparation for a fertilised ovum to implant. If fertilisation does not occur, the cycle will begin again
Four signs of ovulation - ANSWER Increase in basal body temperature
Cervical mucus thins and forms channels for sperm to pass through
Cervix softens
Discomfort/ pain
Difference between corpus luteum and corpus albicans - ANSWER The corpus luteum is a hormone secreting structure which develops in the ovary after ovulation however degenerates after a few days if fertilisation has not occured.
The corpus albicans is the by product of the degeneration of the corpus luteum and is non functional
Female age related changes at puberty - ANSWER Menarche
Onset of reproductive cycles
Breast development
Pubic hair
Changes at menopause - ANSWER Happens between ages of 46-64 years, ovulation and menstruation cease completely
Without sufficient oestrogen, the reproductive organs and breasts atrophy, the vagina becomes dry, weight gain and loss of bone mass, rising total blood cholesterol but decreased HDL levels, hot flushes and sweating and sometimes irritability and depression
Dysmenorrhea - ANSWER Painful mentruation
Amenorrhea - ANSWER The absence of menstruation
Combined oral contraceptive pill - ANSWER An oral contraceptive that contains oestrogen and progesterone, maintaining a high level inhibits secretion of FSH and LH which prevents development of follicle and ovulation
Progesterone only pill - ANSWER Inhibits maturation of oocyte and ovulation, changes
3 functions of the epididymis - ANSWER Site for sperm to mature and gain mobility over 14 days
Stores sperm
Propels sperm into ductus vas deferens by peristalsis during sexual arousal
The hormones involved in spermatogenesis - ANSWER GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) is released from the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH
Luteinising hormone stimulates the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates spermatogenesis
Function of the ductus vas deferens - ANSWER Transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra by peristalsis
5 structures located in the spermatic cord - ANSWER Testicular blood vessels
Autonomic nerves
Lympthatic vesicles
Ductus vas deferens
Cremaster muscle
Location and function of seminal vesicles - ANSWER Location: the posterior surface of the urinary bladder
Function: add an alkaline, viscous fluid to the sperm that contains fructose for the sperm to use for producing ATP
Location and function of the ejaculatory duct - ANSWER Location: runs through the superior aspect of the prostate gland
Function: the ductus vas deferens leads to the ejaculatory duct which then ejects sperm and seminal vesicle secretions into the urethra just before ejaculation
Location and function of the prostate gland - ANSWER Location: a golf ball sized gland consisting of 20-30 glands embedded in smooth muscle and connective tissue which encircles the urethra inferior to the bladder
Function: during ejaculation the smooth muscle contracts squeezing glandular secretions into the urethra via several ducts
Location and function of bulbourethral glands - ANSWER Location: pea sized glands inferior to the prostate gland and at the root of the penis
Function: produces a thick clear alkaline mucus which neutralises acidic urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual excitement
Function of the urethra - ANSWER Carries urine and semen to the outside of the body
Why do males not urinate during ejaculation - ANSWER During ejaculation, a smooth muscle sphincter at the base of the urinary bladder closes which prevents urine from entering the urethra and stops semen entering the bladder
Describe the pathway of sperm from the site of production to exit of the body - ANSWER Testes - epididymis - ductus vas deferens - urethra - seminal vesicles - ejaculatory duct - prostate gland - urethra
Two age related changes that can happen to males - ANSWER Decline in testosterone levels result in decreased muscular strength, fewer viable sperm, decreased sexual desire
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (prostate doubles to quadruples in size and distorts the urethra and therefore urine flow) may cause frequent urination, decreased force of stream, bed wetting and sensation of incomplete elimination
Alleles - ANSWER Alternative versions of genes
Homozygous alleles - ANSWER Contain identical information for a trait
Type of cancer that arises from epithelial tissue - ANSWER Carcinoma
Type of cancer that arises from melanocytes - ANSWER Melanoma
Type of cancer that arises from lymphatic tissue - ANSWER Lymphoma
Type of cancer that arises from leukocytes - ANSWER Leukaemia
3 causes of cancer - ANSWER Environmental agents (chemicals, radiation)
Viruses (HPV causes cervical cancer by stimulating abnormal cell growth)
Genes (abnormalities of the genes that control and regulates cell division)
Inheritance - ANSWER The passage of hereditary traits from one generation to the other
Genetics - ANSWER The branch of biology that deals with inheritance
Genotype - ANSWER The genetic makeup of an individual (Pp)
Phenotype - ANSWER The physical characteristics of an individual determined by the genotype and the environment (blue eyes)
Mutation - ANSWER A permanent heritable (transmissible from parent to offspring) change in a gene that causes it to have a different effect that it than it had previously
Autosome - ANSWER Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
X linked (sex) chromosomes - ANSWER 23rd pair of chromosomes
Females: XX
Males: XY
Dominant allele - ANSWER An allele that is always expressed in a person
Recessive allele - ANSWER Completely hidden or masked by the dominant allele and only expressed when there is no dominant allele present
Autosomal dominant disorder - ANSWER Caused by a mutation of a single gene on a chromosome eg Huntington's disease
Autosomal recessive disorder - ANSWER Caused by mutations of 2 gene pairs on a chromosome eg cystic fibrosis
X-linked recessive disorder - ANSWER Caused by a mutation on the X chromosome eg haemophilia
Why are X linked recessive diseases more common in men? - ANSWER Because they only have the one X chromosome and therefore do not have the dominant gene on the other chromosome to counteract it
Multiple allele inheritance - ANSWER Inheritance pattern in which there are more than 2 alleles for a particular trait; each individual has only 2 of all possible alleles. (example=blood type)
Complex inheritance - ANSWER Most inherited traits are not expressed by only by gene but by either two genes combined or the combination of many genes and environmental factors eg skin colour is affected by genes and the sun
Trisomy - ANSWER An extra chromosome eg down's syndrome
Monosomy - ANSWER Missing a chromosome eg turner syndrome
