Download NSC Exam 4 Study Guide | 100% Correct Answers | Verified | Latest 2024 Version and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!
NSC Exam 4 Study Guide | 100% Correct
Answers | Verified | Latest 2024 Version
What connects the two hemispheres of the brain? - ✔✔cerebral commissures What is the procedure that separated the two brain hemispheres? - ✔✔commissurotomy Aphasia - ✔✔brain damage-induced deficit in the ability to produce or comprehend language What did Broca discover in his research? - ✔✔He discovered that all the aphasic patients that he saw had damage to their inferior prefrontal cortex. This became known as "Broca's Area" What is apraxia? What causes it? - ✔✔the inability to perform certain movements when requested our of context (even though they may be physically able to perform them Almost always caused by left-hemisphere damage What is the theory of cerebral dominance? What thinking did it lead to? - ✔✔One hemisphere (usually the left) assumes a dominant role in controlling complex cognitive and motor functions This was supported by the fact that aphasia and apraxia are both caused by damage to the left hemisphere It led to people referring to the left hemisphere as the "dominant hemisphere" and the right as the "minor hemisphere" What are three tests used to assess the lateralization of the brain besides lesioning the brain? - ✔✔1) sodium amytal test
- the dichotic listening test
- functional brain imaging
sodium amytal test - ✔✔injection is given through the carotid artery which anesthetizes that hemisphere of the brain, allowing the function of the other side to be assessed Neurosurgeons will use it to see which side of the brain is responsible to language dichotic listening test - ✔✔three pairs of spoken digits are played into both ears simultaneously (e.g. 1,3,6 in the right and 2,4,8 in the left) They have found that people report hearing more of the digits played in their right ear What is the difference between dextrals and sinestrals with brain lateralization? How do we know? - ✔✔Dextrals almost always have language lateralized to the left, and sinestrals usually do, but it is more variable We have conformed this from Na amytal tests Are males' brains more lateralized than females? - ✔✔The evidence is mixed. Males have been seen to suffer more consequences from unilateral strokes, but functional brain imaging has not been able to show increased lateralization What is the largest cerebral commissure? - ✔✔corpus callosum What 3 things did Meyers and Sperry do to restrict visual info to only one eye? - ✔✔1) they cut the corpus callosum
- this prevents the hemispheres from communicating
- the cut the optic chiasm
- this prevents signals from the nasal hemiretina from crossing over
- they blindfolded one eye
- this blocked both visual fields in that eye
see a normal, complete face based on the half from the right visual field (left hemisphere). Basically, both hemispheres see normal, complete pictures of faces, rather than the combination What is a Z lens? How is it used? - ✔✔A Z lens is a contact lens that is opaque on one half, so split brain patients can look at visual stimuli for longer than 0.1 seconds and not have signals go into the other visual field. The Z lens can be used to allow patients to assess complex visual stimuli like text, or even auditory stimuli. The latter works because a patient may hear an auditory command like "pick up the green ball" but then they are only able to see the different colors with one visual field due to the Z lens Can the hemispheres of split-brain patients ever communicate? Give evidence for or against - ✔✔Yes. Patients who are shown an emotional image in their left visual field (right hemisphere) can often verbally respond with the correct emotional response when asked. What is the most lateralized of all brain functions? - ✔✔Language Language sounds, speech, reading, writing, and verbal memory are all primarily lateralized to the ______ hemisphere - ✔✔Left hemisphere Facial recognition, geometry, recognizing geometric patterns, and mental rotations of shapes are all primarily lateralized to the _____ hemisphere - ✔✔Right hemisphere Recognizing emotional facial expressions and expressing emotional content is primarily lateralized to the _____ hemisphere - ✔✔Right Words, letters, and arithmetic are lateralized to the ______ hemisphere - ✔✔Left Which hemisphere plays a greater role in ipsilateral movements? - ✔✔The left hemisphere Disorders of spatial perception are most likely to be associated with which type of damage? - ✔✔right hemisphere damage
The right ear is superior at the perception of (digits/melodies) and the left ear is superior at the perception of (digits/melodies) - ✔✔Right = digits (left hemisphere) Left = melodies (right hemisphere verbal memory is more controlled by the ________ and non-verbal memory is more controlled by the _______ - ✔✔left hemisphere; right hemisphere How do the left and right hemispheres asses cognitive challenges differently? - ✔✔The left hemisphere has a metaphoric "interpreter" which tries to find meaning within a certain situation, even if it may be random ex) in an experiment where a light flashed high or low randomly, but high 80% of the time, the left hemisphere tries to pick up the non-existent pattern. The right hemisphere does not and maximizes its odds by always picking the high light What are brain areas that are important for language? - ✔✔1) frontal operculum
- planum temporale
- Heschl's gyrus What is a significant area in the left hemisphere of the frontal operculum? - ✔✔broca's area What is the role of the planum temporale? What is its alternate name? - ✔✔It is responsible for the comprehension of language. It is commonly referred to as Wernicke's area What cortex is Heschl's gyrus in? Where is it located in relation to the planum temporale? - ✔✔It is in the primary auditory cortex. It is located along the lateral fissure, anterior to the planum temporale. True or false: there is a direct correlation between the size of the language centers in the left hemisphere and the lateralization of language to the left hemisphere - ✔✔False. Language centers do tend to be larger in the left hemisphere, but there is no evidence or even a correlation between the size of the structure and the lateralization of language.
Why is it difficult for adults to learn new languages without accents? At what age does this occur? - ✔✔at 10 months of age children can discriminate between all sounds in all languages. But, by 30 months old, the child can only discriminate between sounds that they have already been exposed to. This means that adults trying to learn a different language likely cannot perceive the nuanced difference in word sounds. What is the difference between the ability to interpret sounds and the ability to produce them in nonhuman primates? Why is this significant for language? - ✔✔Many nonhuman primates can understand the meaning of many different sounds, even though they can produce relatively few calls. This may mean that their ability to produce language is stifled by they motor abilities to make the sounds, rather than their cognitive abilities to interpret the sounds. Only humans have the ability to exert fine motor control over their voices to produce speech What is stated by the motor theory of speech perception? - ✔✔Speech recognition is triggered by the activation of the same neurons that would have been activated if the listener had said the words himself There is a great amount of motor cortex activation involved in the recognition of speech What did Wernicke conclude from examining clinical cases? - ✔✔- He suggested that lesions to Broca's area cause an aphasia of expression but comprehension remains relatively intact
- Lesions to Wernicke's area leave production in tact, but damage comprehension/reception of language What connects broca's and wernicke's area? - ✔✔arcuate fasciculus what what condition results from damage to the arcuate fascicles? Describe its symptoms - ✔✔conduction aphasia. Comprehension and spontaneous speech would be largely unaffected, but the ability to reproduce words that were just heard would be hindered Which brain area is responsible for comprehending language-related visual input necessary for reading and writing? - ✔✔the left angular gyrus what is alexia - ✔✔inability to read
what is agraphia - ✔✔inability to write What are the 7 structures in the Wernicke-Geschwind Model? What hemisphere are they found in? - ✔✔1) primary visual cortex
- angular gyrus
- wernicke's area
- broca's area
- arcuate fasciculus
- primary auditory cortex
- primary motor cortex All located in the left hemisphere Wernicke-Geshwind model - ✔✔ What is the process of responding to a verbal question (according to wernicke-geschwind)? - ✔✔1) primary auditory cortex
- wernicke's area
- arcuate fasciculus
- broca's area
- primary motor cortex What is the process of responding to a read question (according to wernicke-geschwind)? - ✔✔1) primary visual cortex
- angular gyrus
- wernicke's area
- arcuate fasciculus
- broca's area
Wernicke-geschwin exclusively studies brain damaged patients/healthy patients whereas the cognitive neuroscience approach can also study brain damaged patients/healthy patients. - ✔✔brain damage patients; healthy patients (using functional brain imaging) What was Bavelier's fMRI study of reading? - ✔✔Used a very sensitive fMRI machine to track brain activity while patients read sentences. Found that there were tiny areas of activity spread throughout the brain, separated by areas of inactivity. Brain areas also differed from patient to patient What was Damasio's PET study of naming? - ✔✔Used a PET scan to track brain activity in patients while they named objects from one of three categories: famous people, animals, or tools. They found that the language area that was triggered depended on which category was being named Developmental dyslexia vs acquired dyslexia - ✔✔developmental = becomes apparent when the child is learning to read acquired = caused by brain damage in a person who was previously able to read There is widespread agreement that developmental dyslexia stems from a disturbance in _______ processing - ✔✔phonological (the representation and comprehension of speech sounds) Why are more Americans diagnosed with dyslexia than Italians? - ✔✔English language has many more phonemes with different possible spellings than the Italian language does. This means that, even though the underlying mechanisms of the disorder are the same, dyslexia is usually more sever in English speaking patients Recognizing a word as a symbol and then saying it is the __________ and recognizing the letters in a word and sounding it out is the ________ - ✔✔lexical procedure; phonetic procedure The lexical procedure is to _____ dyslexia as the phonetic procedure is to _____ dyslexia - ✔✔surface dyslexia; deep dyslexia
Surface dyslexia - ✔✔People lose cannot pronounce words based on their memories of its meaning, but they can sound it out. Therefore, they can correctly pronounce words that follow normal rules, but will mispronounce words the do not (like "lose" or "have") Deep dyslexia - ✔✔People lose their ability to sound out words that are unfamiliar to them, but they can still produce words that they already know from memory What are the 6 cerebral commissures? - ✔✔1) corpus callosum
- optic chiasm
- anterior commissure
- posterior commissure
- massa intermedia
- hippocampal commissure endocrine vs exocrine glands - ✔✔endocrine glands: release chemicals (hormones) directly into the circulatory system exocrine system: release chemicals into ducts where they will be administered outside of the body (usually to a bodily surface) ex) sweat glands What do gonads produce? - ✔✔gametes sperm and eggs how many proteins are coded for by Y chromosome genes? How many for X chromosome genes? - ✔✔Y = 66 X = 615
Progestins: - ✔✔Androgen = Testosterone Estrogen = Estradiol Progestin = Progesterone What does progesterone do in females? - ✔✔prepares the breasts and uterus for pregnancy Despite not being classified as a sex gland, what does the adrenal cortex do? - ✔✔It produces the same hormones that are released by the gonads, but in smaller amounts What are the 2 main types of effects had by hormones? Describe them - ✔✔1) organizing effects - modify the growth and development of tissue
- activating effects - modify the functioning of existing structure What are 5 difference between NTs and hormones? - ✔✔1) hormones are released far away from the target but NTs are released close to the target
- hormones are released in relatively large quantities but NTs are released in relatively small quantities
- hormones are released into the bloodstream and NTs are released into the synapse
- hormones are long lasting and NTs are short lasting
- hormones build a long term readiness to respond but NTs elicit a short-term reaction to a single stimulus How does the hypothalamus regulate itself? - ✔✔through negative feedback What is negative feedback - ✔✔Occurs when a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation. ex) a thermostat operates by means of negative feedback Why is the pituitary gland called the master gland? - ✔✔Most of the hormones that it releases are tropic hormones
What are tropic hormones? Give an example - ✔✔They are hormones that target other endocrine glands and cause them to release other hormones ex) gonadotropin is an anterior pituitary releasing hormone that targets the gonads and causes them to release gonadal hormones What part of the pituitary releases tropic hormones? - ✔✔the anterior pituitary What is the major difference in gonadal hormone levels in men and women? - ✔✔women: hormone levels are cyclic, which causes the menstrual cycle to take place men: hormone levels are steady state Are pituitaries inherently male or female? why or why not? - ✔✔No. Geoffrey Harris transplanted cycling pituitaries into male rats and found that they became steady state. The opposite was also true. This is because pituitary hormone release is regulated by the hypothalamus What is a major factor that affects the release of mating-related hormones in birds with seasonal mating patterns? What is an example of how this takes place? - ✔✔visual input to the nervous system (such as the amount of light which is dependent on the season) ex) when birds were moved to the other side of the equator, their mating patterns flipped What are the two major hormones released by the posterior pituitary? - ✔✔vasopressin and oxytocin Where are vasopressin and oxytocin synthesized? - ✔✔in the ventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus
- TRH causes the release of thyrotropin from he anterior pituitary 3)thyrotropin targets the thyroid and causes it to release thyroid hormones What are the 2 anterior pituitary gonadotropins? - ✔✔follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) What type of hormone are all hypothalamic releasing hormones? - ✔✔peptide hormones What are the 3 signals that regulate hormone release? - ✔✔1) signals from the nervous system
- signals from circulating hormones
- signals from circulating non-hormone chemicals How do neural signals affect hormone release? - ✔✔- All endocrine glands (except for the anterior pituitary) receive signals from neurons
- glands in the brains are regulated by cerebral neurons
- glands outside of the CNS are regulated by both branches of the ANS (sympathetic and parasympathetic branches having opposite effects on hormone release) How does negative feedback affect high levels of testosterone produced by anabolic steroid use in men?
- ✔✔1) gonadotropin release is reduced, causing the testicles to atrophy and sterility
- excess testosterone is aerosolized into estradiol, which often results in gynecomastia (breast growth) What are some effects of anabolic steroid use in women? - ✔✔1) amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation) 2)sterility
- hirsutism (excess growth of body hair)
- growth of the clitoris
- development of a masculine body shape and male characteristics
- ex) baldness, shrinking of breast, deepening of voice
What is amenorrhea? What is a potential cause - ✔✔Absence of menstruation; can be caused by anabolic steroid use in women What 4 brain structures have well established roles in sexual behavior? - ✔✔1) cortex
- hypothalamus
- amygdala
- ventral striatum What are the pros and cons of studying humans and animals for sexual behavior? - ✔✔Humans:
- pros: we can investigate sexual imagery, feelings of love, female orgasm, etc.
- cons: we have to rely on brain imaging while a participant is lying still in the machine Animals:
- pros: we can examine their natural mating behavior and use invasive brain imaging technique
- cons: they can provide no feedback as to "love" or sexual imagery, etc. How is the cortex affected during sexual activity? - ✔✔- The secondary visual cortices are active during sexual arousal (even when the eye are closed)
- the prefrontal lobe is suppressed during orgasm How are male and female hypothalamus different? What causes the difference? - ✔✔- In males, a nucleus in the medial prophetic area is several times larger than that in females
- This was called the sexually dimorphic nucleus The sexually dimorphic nucleus starts the same size in males and females at birth, but it grows much larger in males from estradiol exposure due to aromatized testosterone What role does the medial pre optic area play in sexual behavior in males and females? - ✔✔It is directly responsible for male sexual behavior, and lesions to this area will eliminate all sexual behavior in mammalian males
What does it mean for male gonadal hormone release to be referred to as "steady"? - ✔✔It means there are no major changes in the circulating gonadal hormone levels from day to day (although there may be momentary changes) What is the process of gonadal hormone release? - ✔✔1) hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone
- this affects the anterior pituitary through the hypothalamopituitary portal system to release gonadotropin
- this targets the gonads, causing them to release gonadal hormones like androgens and estrogens When do primordial gonads differentiate? How do the cortex and the medulla differ? - ✔✔They differentiate into testes or ovaries at about 7 weeks after conception
- In the presence of sry protein, the medulla develops into a testis
- in the absence of sry protein, the cortex develops into an ovary What does the sry gene do? Where is it found? - ✔✔- Found on the Y chromosome
- It causes sry protein to be produce 7 weeks after conception, which causes the medulla of the primordial gonads to develop into testes What happens if sry protein is injected is injected into an XX fetus 6 weeks after conception? What would happen if a drug that blocks the effects of sry protein was injected into an XY fetus 6 weeks after conception? What would happen if this was done at 8+ weeks? - ✔✔1) the XX fetus would develop testes
- the XY fetus would develop ovaries
- it would be too late to have the same effect What are the 2 main ducts found in the wolffian system? - ✔✔1) seminal vesicles
- vas deferens
What are the 3 main ducts found in the müllerian system? - ✔✔1) uterus
- fallopian tubes
- upper part of the vagina What causes the wolffian/müllerian system to develop. When does it occur? - ✔✔- 3 months after conception, the testes release testosterone and müllerian-inhibiting substance
- if this does not occur, then the müllerian system will develop What hormone stimulates the development of the wolffish system? - ✔✔testosterone What does "orchis" mean? - ✔✔testicle orchidectomy - ✔✔surgical removal of one or both testicles ovariectomy - ✔✔surgical removal of one or both ovaries Exposure to which hormone is necessary for the development of the müllerian system? - ✔✔N/A. system automatically develops unless there is exposure to testicular hormones What are the 4 bipotential precursors for external genitalia? - ✔✔1) glans
- urethral folds
- lateral bodies
- labioscrotal swellings What are the two potential structures that the glans can turn into? - ✔✔Men: head of penis Women: clitoris What are the two potential structures that the urethral folds can turn into? - ✔✔Men: structure is fused Women: labia minora
