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NSG 6691 Final Exam Questions With
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External validity - - ANSWER degree to which findings of a study can be generalized to other populations or environments
Internal validity - - ANSWER degree to which it can be inferred that the experimental treatment, rather than an uncontrolled condition, resulted in the observed effects
Justice - - ANSWER principle that human subjects should be treated fairly
Respect for persons - - ANSWER principle that people have the right to self-determination and to treatment as autonomous agents; that is, they have the freedom to participate in research
Beneficence - - ANSWER obligation to act to benefit others and to maximize possible benefits
Sample - - ANSWER subset of sampling units from a population
Population - ANSWER well-defined set that has certain specified properties
What is interrater reliability? - ANSWER Consistency of observations between two or more observers, often expressed as a percentage of agreement between raters or observers or a coefficient of agreement that takes into account the element of chance; usually used with direct observation method
Extraneous variable (mediating variable)- - ANSWER variable that interferes with the operation of the phenomena being studied
Control - - ANSWER measures used to hold uniform or constant the conditions under which an investigation occurs
Randomization - - ANSWER sampling selection procedure in which each person or element in a population has an equal chance of being selected to either the experimental group or the control group
Credibility - - ANSWER steps in qualitative research to ensure accuracy, validity, or soundness of data
Auditability - - ANSWER researcher's development of the research process in a qualitative study that allows a researcher or reader to follow the thinking or conclusions of the researcher
Fittingness - - ANSWER answers the following questions: are the findings applicable
outside the study situation? Are the results meaningful to the individual not involved in the research?
Data saturation - - ANSWER a point when data collection can cease. It occurs when the information being shared with the researcher becomes repetitive. Ideas conveyed by the participant have been shared before by other participants; inclusion of additional participants does not result in new ideas
Nominal - - ANSWER level used to classify objects or events into categories without any relative ranking (e.g. gender, hair color)
Ordinal - - ANSWER level used to show rankings of events or objects; numbers are not equidistant, and zero is arbitrary (e.g. class ranking)
Interval - - ANSWER level used to show rankings of events or objects on a scale with equal intervals between numbers but with an arbitrary zero (e.g. C temp)
Ratio - - ANSWER level that ranks the order of events or objects and that has equal intervals and an absolute zero (e.g. ht. & wt.)
Error variance - - ANSWER extent to which the variance in test scores is attributable to error rather than a true measure of the behaviors
Systematic error (constant error) - - ANSWER attributable to lasting characteristics of the subject that do not tend to fluctuate from one time to another
Random error - - ANSWER error that occurs when scores vary in a random way. Occurs when data collectors do not use standard procedures to collect data consistently among all subjects in a study
Sensitivity - - ANSWER proportion of those with disease who test positive
Specificity - - ANSWER proportion of those without disease who test negative. It measures how well the test rules out disease when it is really absent; a specific test has few false positive results
Confidence interval - - ANSWER qualifies the uncertainty of a statistic or the probable value within which a population parameter is expected to lie
Survival curve - - ANSWER a graph that shows the probability that a patient survives in a given state for at least a specified time (or longer)
Likelihood ratio - - ANSWER provide the nurse with information about the accuracy of a diagnostic test and can also help the nurse to be a more efficient decision maker by allowing the clinician to quantify the probability of disease for any individual patient
Odds ratio - - ANSWER an estimate of relative risk used in logistic regression as a measure of association; describes the probability of an event
Know what is meant by null value. - ANSWER In an experiment, when a value is obtained
What is meant by an independent/dependent variable? What are the key differences between independent and dependent variables? Be able to select the independent or dependent in a research question or hypothesis. - ANSWER Independent variable - antecedent or the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable. Usually symbolized by "X" is the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable. In experimental research studies the researcher manipulates the independent variable. In nonexperimental research the independent variable is not manipulated and is assumed to have occur naturally before or during the study.
Dependent variable - in experimental studies, the presumed effect of the independent or experimental variable on the outcome. Represented by "Y" varies with the change in the independent variable. The Dependent variable is NOT manipulated. It is observed and assumed to vary with changes in the independent variable. Predictions are made from the independent variable to the Dependent variable. It is the Dependent variable that the researcher is interested in understanding, explaining, or predicting.
The Independent variable has the presumed effect on the dependent variable. In experimental studies researchers can manipulate the Independent variable. In non-experimental studies the Independent variable is not manipulated and presumed to have occurred before or during the study. Whereas the dependent variable is NOT manipulated at all and is observed and assumed to vary with the change of the Independent variable.
Independent variable - - ANSWER antecedent or the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable. Usually symbolized by "X" is the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable. In experimental research studies the researcher manipulates the independent variable. In nonexperimental research the independent variable is not manipulated and is assumed to have occur naturally before or during the study.
Dependent variable - - ANSWER in experimental studies, the presumed effect of the independent or experimental variable on the outcome. Represented by "Y" varies with the change in the independent variable. The Dependent variable is NOT manipulated. It is observed and assumed to vary with changes in the independent variable. Predictions are made from the independent variable to the Dependent variable. It is the Dependent variable that the researcher is interested in understanding, explaining, or predicting.
What is the problem, the purpose, the research question, or hypothesis, and how would
they be stated? - ANSWER When a researcher finalizes a research question, the following characteristics should be evident: it clearly identifies the variables under consideration; it specifies the population being studied; it implies the possibility of empirical testing. Because each element is crucial to developing a satisfactory research question, the criteria will be discussed in greater detail. These elements can often be found in the introduction of the published article; they are not always stated in an explicit manner
Purpose - that which encompasses the aims or objectives the investigator hopes to achieve with the research, not the question to be answers
Research question - tests a measureable relationship to be to be examined in a research study. A key preliminary step wherein the foundation for a study is developed from the research problem and results in the research hypothesis
Hypothesis - a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. Predicts the outcome of a study
Purpose - - ANSWER that which encompasses the aims or objectives the investigator hopes to achieve with the research, not the question to be answers
Research question - - ANSWER tests a measureable relationship to be to be examined in a research study. A key preliminary step wherein the foundation for a study is developed from the research problem and results in the research hypothesis
Hypothesis - - ANSWER a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. Predicts the outcome of a study
Know databases used for retrieval of literature. - ANSWER CINAHAL PLUS with FULL TEXT (EBSCO), PubMed (MEDLINE), PsycINFO, Education Source with ERIC (EBSCO), BIOSIS, Google Scholar
Differentiate between theoretical and conceptual frameworks. What is a model?
Theoretical frameworks - - ANSWER theoretical rationale for the development of hypotheses
Conceptual frameworks - - ANSWER structure of concepts and/or theories pulled
Be able to distinguish among experimental, quasi-experimental, and specific non-experimental designs, including purpose, potential validity issues, and levels of evidence.
Experimental designs - - ANSWER research design that has the following properties: randomization, control, and manipulation
Quasi-experimental design - - ANSWER study design in which random assignment is not used, but the independent variable is manipulated and certain mechanisms of control are used
Survey studies - - ANSWER descriptive, exploratory, or comparative studies that collect detailed descriptions of existing variables and uses the data to justify and assess current conditions and practices, or to make more plans for improving health care practices
Relationship/difference studies - - ANSWER trace the relationship or differences between variable that can provide a deeper insight into a phenomenon
Correlational study - - ANSWER a type of nonexperimental research design that examines the relationship between two or more variables
Developmental studies - ANSWER - a type of nonexperimental research design that is concerned not only with the existing status and interrelationship of phenomena but also with changes that take place as a function of time
Cross-sectional study - - ANSWER nonexperimental research design that looks at data at one point in time - that is, in the immediate present
Cohort studies (longitudinal, prospective, repeated measures studies) - - ANSWER nonexperimental research design in which a researcher collects data from the same group at different points in time
Case control study (ex post facto study, retrospective study) - - ANSWER type of nonexperimental research design that examines the relationships among the variables after the variations have occurred
Methodological research - - ANSWER controlled investigation and measurement of the means of gathering and analyzing data
Secondary analysis - - ANSWER form of research in which the researcher takes previously collected and analyzed data from one study and reanalyzes the data for a secondary purpose
Purpose - - ANSWER this part of the study encompasses the aims or objectives the investigator hope to achieve with research
Potential validity issues: - ANSWER Internal validity threats - history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, mortality, selection bias
External validity issues - selection effects, measurement effects, reactive effects
History - - ANSWER internal validity threat that refers to events outside of the experimental setting that may affect the dependent variable
Maturation - - ANSWER developmental, biological or psychological processes that operate within an individual as a function of time and are external to the events of the investigation
Testing - - ANSWER the effects of taking a pretest on the scores of a posttest
Instrumentation - changes in the measurement of the variables that may account for changes in the obtained measurement
Mortality - - ANSWER loss of subjects from time 1 data collection to time 2 data collection
Selection bias - internal validity threat that arises when pretreatment differences
team independently assess the quality of each study, include or exclude studies based on pre-established criteria, statistically combine the results of individual studies, and present a balanced and impartial evidence summary of the findings that represents a "state of the science" conclusion about the evidence, supporting benefits and risks of a given health care practice
Know what is reported in different sections of quantitative and qualitative reports.
Quantitative reports - - ANSWER abstract, introduction, background and significance, literature review (sometimes includes theoretical framework), methodology, results, discussion, conclusions
Qualitative reports - - ANSWER elements of qualitative research report: introduction of problem; literature review: Methodology study design, sample, setting, recruitment data collection, data analysis; findings; discussion; limitations; recommendations
Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling and the advantages and disadvantages.
Non-Probability sampling - - ANSWER a procedure in which elements are chosen by non-random methods. Inclusion in a group is not random. Less generalizable. Less representative. 3 types: convenience, quota, purposive
Probability sampling - - ANSWER a procedure that uses some form of random selection when the sample units are chose. Uses randomization to assign elements. More generalizable. More representative. 3 types: simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling.
How does researcher determine sample size? What are potential problems with small sample size? - ANSWER Sample size must consider: type of design and sampling procedure; formula used for estimate optimum sample size; degree of precision required; heterogeneity of the attributes investigated; how often the phenomenon of interest occurs in the population (common vs rare); projected cost; sample size should be determined before the study is conducted excepting certain qualitative designs and pilot studies; general rule of thumb is always to use the largest sample possible; sample is usually calculated with power analysis
If sample size is too small, differences may not be detected, resulting in a type II error. Determining the right sample size is called a "power analysis". Research should provide
information that the sample size was adequate
Distinguish among the different sampling methods and sampling strategies: Non-probability (Convenience, quota, purposive) and Probability (simple random, stratified random, and multistage or cluster).
Non-probability sampling - - ANSWER a procedure in which elements are chosen by nonrandom methods
Convenience sampling - - ANSWER a nonprobability sampling strategy that uses the most readily accessible persons or objects as subjects in a study
Quota sampling - - ANSWER a nonprobability sampling strategy that identifies the strata of the population and proportionately represents the strata in the sample
Purposive sampling - - ANSWER a nonprobability sampling strategy in which the researcher selects subjects who are considered to be representative of the population
Probability sampling - - ANSWER procedure that uses some form of random selection when the sample units are chosen
Simple random sample - - ANSWER a probability sampling strategy in which the population is defined, a sampling frame is listed, and a subset from which the sample will be chosen; members are randomly selected.
Stratified random sample - - ANSWER a probability sampling strategy in which the population is divided into strata or subgroups. An appropriate number of elements from each subgroup are randomly selected based on their proportion in the population
Multistage sampling (cluster sampling) - - ANSWER involves a successive random sampling of units (clusters) that programs from large to small and meets sample criteria.
Vulnerable participant wont be eliminated for not being able to read. Higher response rate. Fewer missing data
Questionnaires - ANSWER - paper and pencil instruments designed to gather data from individuals about knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and feelings
Less expensive, more confidential no interviewer bia
Physiological measurement - ANSWER - data collection involves the use of specialized equipment to determine the physical and biological status of subjects
Advantage is that it is objective, precise, pick up subtle changes
Disadvantage is that it is expensive to obtain/use, specialized training, altered variable of interest, environmental effects
Existing data - - ANSWER data gathered from records (medical records, care plans) and databases (us census, national cancer databases).
Datas already collected, large populations, time saver
Institutions may not allow access to records, research to only available data
How can measurement error occur? How does measurement error affect the outcomes of the research? Know the different types of error.
Measurement error is the difference between what really exists and what is measured in a study. Every study has some measurement error. - ANSWER Measurement error can be random or systematic.
Random error occurs when scores vary in a random way. Occurs when data collectors do not use standard procedures to collect data consistently among all subjects in a study
Systematic error occurs when scores are incorrect but in the same directions. Example when all subjects were weighed using a weight scale that is under by 3 lb for all subjects in the study
Researchers attempt to design data collection methods that will be consistently applied across all subjects and time points to reduce measurement error.
Know the importance of reliability and validity and be able to distinguish between the two.
Reliability - - ANSWER Extent to which the instrument produced the same results if the behavior is repeatedly measured with the same scale. If the same or comparable instruments on more than one occasion to measure a set of behaviors that ordinarily remains relatively constant, we would expect similar results if the instruments are reliable. Consistency or constancy of a measuring instrument
Validity - - ANSWER extent to which an instrument measures the attributes of a concept accurately. Valid instruments reflects the concept it is supposed to measure. Determination of whether a measurement instrument actually measures what it is purported to measure
Know the concepts of stability, equivalence, and homogeneity as related to reliability.
Stability - - ANSWER instrument's ability to produce the same results with repeated testing
Equivalence - - ANSWER instrument exhibits this if it produces the same results when equivalent or parallel instruments or procedures are used
Homogeneity - ANSWER - means that all of the items in an instrument measure the same concept, variable, or characteristic
What does Cronbach's alpha measure and what are acceptable levels? - ANSWER Cronbach's alpha is a test of internal consistency that simultaneously compares each item in a scale to all others. Used when a measurement instrument uses Likert scale response format. Alpha scores above 0.70 are sufficient evidence for supporting the internal consistency of the instrument
Know the elements for critical appraisal of the strengths and weaknesses of a research report. - ANSWER An evaluation of strength and quality of the study. Not a criticism of the work. Provides a structure for reviewing the sections of a research study.
Case study - - ANSWER The study of a selected phenomenon that provides an in-depth
Auditability - - ANSWER researcher's development of the research process in a qualitative study that allows a researcher or reader to follow the thinking or conclusions of the researcher. Accountability as judged by the adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data through various steps of analysis to the interpretation of findings
Confirmability - ANSWER - in qualitative research, the process of establishing the validity of empiric theory and research; in some qualitative methods, confirmation may be assumed as a result of the methodology used; confirmation may also require the theory and research to be used in additional settings
Fittingness - - ANSWER faithfulness to participants' everyday reality, described in enough detail so that others can evaluate importance for practice, research, and theory development. Answers the following questions: are the findings applicable outside the study situation? Are the results meaningful to the individual not involved in the research?
Know critical appraisal elements of qualitative research reports. - ANSWER Critical appraisal of qualitative studies focuses on how the integrity of the design and methods will affect the credibility and meaningfulness of the findings and their usefulness in clinical practice
Qualitative research critical appraisal process consists of identifying the components of the qualitative research process in studies, determining study strengths and weaknesses, and evaluating the trustworthiness and meaning of study findings
Know steps of evidence-based practice. - ANSWER a. Ask a clinical question
b. Collect the most relevant evidence
c. Clinically appraise the evidence
d. Integrate all the evidence with one's clinical expertise, patient preferences, and values in making a practice decision
e. Evaluate the practice decision or change
f. Share the outcome of EBP changes with others
Know measures of association and how to calculate and interpret EBP study results
(EER, CER, OR, RR, APR, RRR, ABI, RBI)
Experimental event rate EER - ANSWER proportion of patients in experimental treatment groups in which an event is observed
Absolute risk reduction ARR - ANSWER - a value that gives reduction of risk in absolute terms. Considered the real reduction because it is the difference between the risk observed in those who did not experience the event. Arithmetic difference in risk of outcome between patients who have had the event and those who have not had the event calculated as EER-CER
Control event rate CER - - ANSWER proportion of patients in a control group in which an event is observed
Odds ratio OR- - ANSWER an estimate of relative risk used in logistic regression as a measure of association; describes the probability of an event. Calculated by dividing the odds in the treatment or exposed group by the odds in the control group. If OR =1, there is no difference. If OR is less than 1, the event is less likely in the treatment group than the control group. If greater than 1, the event is more likely to occur in the treatment group than in the control group. Disease is absent with that when it is present. (1-sensitivity)/specificity
Relative risk RR- - ANSWER risk of event after experimental treatment as a percentage of original risk. Probability of an event in the treatment group divided by the probability of the event in the control group (greater the 50% definitely clinically significant, between 25-50% probably clinically significant) RR= EER/CER
Positive predictive value - ANSWER - proportion of people with s positive test who have the target disorder. PPV=TP/(TP+FP)
Relative risk reduction - ANSWER RRR - (1-RR). If RRR is 0, then active treatment is neither of benefit nor harm estimate of the percentage of baseline risk that is removed as a result of the therapy. Percent reduction in risk that is removed after considering the percent of risk that would occur anyway (the control group's risk). Calculated as (EER-CER)/CER
odds in the treatment or exposed group by the odds in the control group. If OR =1, there is no difference. If OR is less than 1, the event is less likely in the treatment group than the control group. If greater than 1, the event is more likely to occur in the treatment group than in the control group
