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NURS 5315: ADV PATHO EXAM 1 WITH VERIFIED ANSWERS
"E. inadequate oxygenation of tissues P. decrease in mitochondrial function, decreased production of ATP increases anaerobic metabolism. eventual cell death.
C.M. hypoxia, cyanosis, cognitive impairment, lethargy - CORRECT ANSWER Hypoxia
injury" "E. normal byproduct of ATP production, will overwhelm the mitochondria- exhaust intracellular antioxidants P. lipid peroxidation, damage proteins, fragment DNA C.M. development in Alzheimer's, heart disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral
Sclerosis - CORRECT ANSWER Free radical and ROS"
"E. mood altering drug, long term effects on liver and nutritional status P. metabolized by liver, generates free radicals C.M. CNS depression, nutrient deficiencies-Mag, Vit B6, thiamine, PO4, inflammation and fatty
infiltration of liver, hepatomegaly, leads to liver failure irreversible - CORRECT ANSWER
Ethanol" "Na and H2O enter cell and cause swelling. Organ increases in weight, becomes distended and
pale. Associated with high fever, hypocalcemia, certain infections - CORRECT ANSWER
Oncosis"
"Liver and germ cell tumors - CORRECT ANSWER Alpha Fetoprotein Origin"
"GI, pancreas, lung, breast tumors - CORRECT ANSWER Carcinoembryonic Antigen"
"prostate tumors - CORRECT ANSWER Prostate Specific Antigen"
"from epithelial tissue- renal cell carcinoma - CORRECT ANSWER Carcino-"
"from connective tissue- chondrosarcoma - CORRECT ANSWER Sarco-"
"preinvasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or squamous cells- cervix - CORRECT
ANSWER Carcinoma in situ"
"Multiple organs including brain - CORRECT ANSWER Lung ca metastasis"
"Liver, lungs - CORRECT ANSWER Colorectal ca metastasis"
"Liver, lungs, brain - CORRECT ANSWER Testicular ca metastasis"
"Bones (especially lumbar spine), liver - CORRECT ANSWER Prostate ca metastasis"
"Liver, bones, lymphatics - CORRECT ANSWER Head and neck ca metastasis"
"Peritoneal surfaces, diaphragm, omentum, liver - CORRECT ANSWER Ovarian ca
metastasis"
"Lungs - CORRECT ANSWER Sarcoma metastasis"
"intracellular K+ is released into bloodstream - CORRECT ANSWER Cell lysis effect on K+"
"cellular ATP is diminished, opening K+ channels and allowing K+ to leave cell - CORRECT
ANSWER Exercise effect on K+"
"excretion and absorption of K+ is regulated by tubule system - CORRECT ANSWER Kidneys
effect on K+" "mag inhibits the potassium channels, keeping balance. when mag is low, more K+ exits the call,
and is excreted via the kidneys. - CORRECT ANSWER magnesium and potassium"
"E. increased acid production, loss of bicarb, diminished renal excretion of hydrogen C.M hyperventilation (compensatory), h/a, n/v/d, dehydration, hypotension
pH <7.4 HCO3 <22 - CORRECT ANSWER metabolic acidosis"
"E. GI loss, diuretic use C.M. slow, shallow respirations, irritability, twitching, s/s of hypokalemia
pH >7.4 HCO3 >26 - CORRECT ANSWER metabolic alkalosis"
"E. cns depression, airway abnormalities C.M. restless, confused, seizures, tachycardia
pH <7.4 PaCO2 >44 - CORRECT ANSWER respiratory acidosis"
"E. usually anxiety, PE, chf, salicylate OD, illegal drugs C.M. light-headed, confused, tetany
pH >7.4 PaCO2 <38 - CORRECT ANSWER respiratory alkalosis"
"Paired genes on autosomal chromosomes - CORRECT ANSWER Allele"
"- muscle cells, liver cells, heart cells, RBCs, brain secrete what enzyme - CORRECT ANSWER
LDH"
"- liver cells (s) - CORRECT ANSWER AST enzymes are found where?"
"- liver cells (L enzyme) - CORRECT ANSWER ALT enzymes are found where?"
"- cardiac cells - CORRECT ANSWER Troponin enzymes are found where?"
"spectrum of cell changes after the cell dies - CORRECT ANSWER Necrosis"
"necrosis which results from sudden insufficiency of arterial blood flow - CORRECT ANSWER
Infarct" "liver cell, ketogenesis occurs in the mitochondria of the hepatocyte
result of unavailability of glucose - CORRECT ANSWER Role of the hepatocytes"
"Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies and occurs mostly in the mitochondria of the
hepatocytes (liver cells) - CORRECT ANSWER Role of the mitochondria"
"lack of glucose -occur from the depletion of carbohydrate stores or may occur bc the cell is not able to use glucose
but the individual is hyperglycemic (type 2 DM) - CORRECT ANSWER Triggers for
ketogenesis" "processed by hepatocytes and undergoes transformation to 3 ketone bodies: Acetoacetate, Acetone and B-hydroxybutyrate (basis of ketoacidosis) -States of starvation or uncontrolled DM, cells do not receive enough glucose to produce energy, resulting in acceleration of the B-oxidation cycle and increasing oxidation of fatty acids or
energy. B-oxidation cycle results in formation of acetyl-CoA - CORRECT ANSWER Role of
Acetyl-CoA"
"size or direct extent of the primary tumor - CORRECT ANSWER T:"
"tumor cannot be evaluated - CORRECT ANSWER Tx:"
"carcinoma in situ - CORRECT ANSWER Tis:"
"no signs of tumor - CORRECT ANSWER T0:"
"size and/or extension of the primary tumor - CORRECT ANSWER T1, T2, T3, T4:"
"degree of spread to regional lymph nodes - CORRECT ANSWER N:"
"lymph nodes cannot be evaluated - CORRECT ANSWER Nx:"
"tumor cells absent from regional lymph nodes - CORRECT ANSWER N0:"
"regional lymph node metastasis present; (at some sites: tumor spread to closest or small number
of regional lymph nodes) - CORRECT ANSWER N1:"
"tumor spread to an extent between N1 and N3 (N2 is not used at all sites) - CORRECT
ANSWER N2:"
"tumor spread to more distant or numerous regional lymph nodes - CORRECT ANSWER N3:"
"presence of distant metastasis - CORRECT ANSWER M:"
"no distant metastasis - CORRECT ANSWER M0:"
"metastasis to distant organs - CORRECT ANSWER M1:"
"Apprehension, confusion, decreased DTR, diaphoretsis, headache,n/v, restless,tachy, tremors,
dyspnea-with rapid, shallow respiration - CORRECT ANSWER Resp acid s/s"
"Hyperventilation, fever, like vet failure, sepsis(especially gram-) - CORRECT ANSWER Resp
alk causes"
"Decreased LOC, seizure, coma, hyperreflexia, carpopedal spasm, tetany, arrhythmia, angina -
CORRECT ANSWER Respiratory alkalosis"
"Anxiety, diaphoresis, dyspraxia, ECG changes, hyper reflexes, parasthesias, restlessness, tachy,
tetany - CORRECT ANSWER Resp alk s/s"
"pH <7. Paco2 >
Bicarbonate normal - CORRECT ANSWER Resp acid level
Uncompensated"
"-Water moves between plasma and interstitial space by osmosis and hydrostatic pressure, occur across the capillary membrane
-The major forces for filtration are within the capillary. - CORRECT ANSWER Intravascular
pattern of fluid shift" "hydrostatic pressure promotes the movement of about 10% of fluid along with small amount of
protein into lymphatics which eventually returns to the circulation - CORRECT ANSWER
Interstitial pattern of fluid shift" "- Fluid inside the cell
- 40% of total body water - CORRECT ANSWER - Intracellular fluid (ICF)"
"Water moves between ICF and ECF compartment by osmosis - CORRECT ANSWER
Intracellular pattern of fluid shift"
"facilitates the outward movement of water from the capillary to the interstitial space -
CORRECT ANSWER Capillary hydrostatic pressure (BP)"
"osmotically attracts water from the interstitial space back into the capillary - CORRECT
ANSWER Capillary (plasma) oncotic pressure"
"facilitates the inward movement of water from the interstitial space into the capillary -
CORRECT ANSWER Interstitial hydrostatic pressure"
"osomotically attracts water from the capillary into the interstitial space - CORRECT
ANSWER Interstitial oncotic pressure"
"- The measure of solute concentration in a solution (basically the concentration of plasma) aka
Tonicity - CORRECT ANSWER Osmolality"
"amount of pressure of force that is exerted by solute molecules of a given compartment
-pulling passive force - CORRECT ANSWER Osmotic pressure"
"280-295 mOsm/kg - CORRECT ANSWER plasma osmolality"
"responsible for osmotic balance of ECF space - CORRECT ANSWER - Na"
"responsible for osmotic balance of ICF space - CORRECT ANSWER - K"
"Movement of water b/w compartments from an area of low concentration of solutes to an area
of high - CORRECT ANSWER Osmosis"
"Amount of pressure or force exerted by solute molecules of a given compartment - CORRECT
ANSWER Osmotic Pressure"
"S/S edema, tightness of the skin, puffiness of eyes, rales - CORRECT ANSWER Fluid Volume
Excess"
"Sitting or standing in one position, DVT, steroid drugs, CHF, Kidney disease, cirrhosis, -
CORRECT ANSWER Edema Etiology"
"S/S Swelling or puffiness of tissue, shiny skin, increased abdominal size, dyspnea, SOB, chest
pain - CORRECT ANSWER Edema"
"Excessive accumulation of fluid within the interstitial space - CORRECT ANSWER Edema"
"It facilitates the outward movement of water from the vascular space to the interstitial space. It is determined by blood pressure and blood volume - in Edema, hydrostatic pressure is increased
due to a venous obstruction or retention of Na - CORRECT ANSWER Hydrostatic Pressure"
"It osmotically attracts water from the interstitial space back into the capillary - in Edema,
oncotic pressure is decreased due to a loss or diminished production of albumin - CORRECT
ANSWER Oncotic Pressure"
"responsible for absorption and excretion of Na - CORRECT ANSWER renal tubular system"
"- Regulated by ADH, hypothalamus, RAAS, Kidneys - CORRECT ANSWER Sodium Disorders"
"most common electrolyte imbalance in hospital 3 types: isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic (euvolemic, hypovolemic, hypervolemic) Mild (126-130): anorexia, apathy, restlessness, nausea, lethargy, muscle cramps Moderate (120-125): agitation, disorientation, headache
Severe (<120): seizure, coma, a reflex is, incontinence, death - CORRECT ANSWER
Hyponatremia"
"- regulated by 3 hormones: parathyroid (PTH), vit D, and calcitonin
- rigidly controlled.
- inverse relationship: if one increases= other one decreases - CORRECT ANSWER Calcium and Phosphorus" ">10mg/dl E: Causes decreased cell permeability to Na+, causing the threshold potential to become more positive and further from the membrane potential, meaning more stimulus is required to initiate an action potential. Causes: hyperparathyroidism and at times cancer of the bone resulting from breast cancer, lymphoma or myeloma CM: polyuria, renal stones, nausea, vomiting, constipation, weakness, fatigue, confusion, coma, hyporeflexia, lethargy,
encephalopathy, a shortened QT segment and depressed, widened T waves on EKG. - CORRECT
ANSWER Hypercalcemia -"
"<8.5mg/dl E: Causes increased cell permeability to Na+ causing a progressive depolarization. The threshold potential becomes more negative and closer to the resting membrane potential, requiring a smaller stimulus for an action potential. The cells are more likely to initiate an action potential; they are excitable. Causes: Hypoparathyroidism, renal failure, acute pancreatitis, vitamin D deficiency, CM: Tetany (cont. muscle spasm), hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures, dysrhythmias Chvostek's sign - tap facial nerve just below temple leads to twitching of nose or lip Trousseau's sign - contraction of hand and fingers when arterial blood flow in arm occluded for 5
minutes - CORRECT ANSWER Hypocalcemia"
"Hyperparathyroidism, cancers of the bone originating from breast cancer, myeloma or lymphoma Polyuria, renal stones, nausea, vomiting, constipation, weakness, fatigue, confusion,
coma - CORRECT ANSWER Hypercalcemia"
"Measured should be slightly greater than calculated If >10, then other solutes present
If >50, then fatal - CORRECT ANSWER Osmolar gap"
"ph < 7.4 and HCO3 < 21 E: Increased H+ load - Decreased H+ excretion - Uremia, distal renal tubule acidosis; Concentration of non-carbonic acids increases or bicarbonate is lost from ECF or cannot be regenerated by the kidneys.
Causes: ketoacidosis (DM, starvation), Lactic acidosis (shock-hypoxemia), ingestions ((high osmolar gaps) (ammonium Cl-, ethylene glycol, methanol, salicylates, paraldehyde); HCO3 loss - Diarrhea, renal failure, proximal renal tubule acidosis CM: Decreased myocardial contractility, decreased cardiac output, catecholamine resistant
hypotension, hyperkalemia; Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shifts right. - CORRECT
ANSWER metabolic acidosis"
"Etiology:Free Radical- have unpaired electron in its outer shell, making molecule unstable and highly reactive. aka being oxidized ROS-byproduct of ATP production in the mitochondria Clinical Manif: FR- to stabilize self, it will steal an electron from another molecule or give up an electron. The free radical will often steal an electron from another molecule, making that molecule a free radical ROS- can overwhelm mitochondria and exhaust intracellular antioxidants, causing cell injury/disease Patho: ROS are produced by absorption of high energy sources such as radiation or UV light, have role in development of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). ROS cause lipid peroxidation, damage proteins which maintain ion pumps and cellular transport, fragment DNA and causes less protein synthesis, cause chromatin destruction, and damage mitochondria. Antioxidants are our body's defense
against ROS- re - CORRECT ANSWER Free Radical and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)"
"Etiology: ETOH is metabolized to acetaldehyde in the cytoplasm of the cell, enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) helps with conversion Clinical Manifestation: adverse effects on liver and causes nutritional disorders. acute effects in the liver include inflammation, fatty infiltration, hepatomegaly, acute liver necrosis and suppressed fatty acid oxidation. liver failure is irreversible effect of chronic abuse Patho: Conversion oxidized niacin (NAD+) is reduced to NADH. In the mitochondrial acetaldehyde is further converted by ADH to acetate and further oxidized niacin (NAD+) is reduced to NADH. the increased NADH/NAD+ ratio in the liver causes the following Pyruvate change to lactic acid causing lactic acidosis Oxaloacetate converted to malate, preventing gluconeogenesis leading to fasting hypoglycemia Glyceraldehyde to glycerol
which combines with fatty acids and forms triglycerides, leads to triglycerides in the live -
CORRECT ANSWER Ethanol"
"Cellular Effect:- the sum of cellular changes after local cell death and the process of cellular self- digestion (autolysis)- rapid loss of plasma membrane, organelle swelling, mitochondrial dysfunction, lack typical features of apoptosis Clinical Implications:- induced by nonspecific trauma or injury- necroptosis - programmed necrosis- associated with development, tissue damage during acute pancreatitis, and retinal detachment; and provides an innate immune response to viral infection- this challenges the historic view of necrosis as passive cell death
occurring in a disorganized or unregulated manner - CORRECT ANSWER Necrosis"
activation of caspases, resulting in cell death. - CORRECT ANSWER Hepatocellular
damage:Alcoholic Hepatitis" "Cirrhosis is a late stage of serious liver disease marked by inflammation (swelling), fibrosis (cellular hardening) and damaged membranes preventing detoxification of chemicals in the body, ending in scarring and necrosis (cell death). Acetaldehyde may be responsible for alcohol- induced fibrosis by stimulating collagen deposition by hepatic stellate cells.[2] The production of oxidants derived from NADPH oxi- dase and/or cytochrome P-450 2E1 and the formation of acetaldehyde-protein adducts damage the cell membrane.[2] Symptoms include jaundice(yellowing), liver enlargement, and pain and tenderness from the structural changes in damaged liver architecture. Without total abstinence from alcohol use, cirrhosis will eventually lead to liver failure. Late complications of cirrhosis or liver failure include portal hypertension (high blood pressure in the portal vein due to the increased flow resistance through the damaged
- CORRECT ANSWER Hepatocellular damage:Cirrhosis" "Role: liver cell, ketogenesis occurs in the mitochondria of the hepatocyte Clinical Implications:
result of unavailability of glucose - CORRECT ANSWER Role of the hepatocytes"
"Role: Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies and occurs mostly in the mitochondria of the hepatocytes (liver cells) Clinical Implications:- level of ketone bodies too high, pH drops =
ketoacidosis (commonly seen in uncontrolled DM1 and alcoholics - CORRECT ANSWER Role
of the mitochondria" "Role:lack of glucose Clinical Implications:occur from the depletion of carbohydrate stores or
may occur bc the cell is not able to use glucose but the individual is hyperglycemic (type 2 DM) -
CORRECT ANSWER Triggers for ketogenesis"
"Role:processed by hepatocytes and undergoes transformation to 3 ketone bodies: Acetoacetate, Acetone and B-hydroxybutyrate (basis of ketoacidosis) Clinical Implications:States of starvation or uncontrolled DM, cells do not receive enough glucose to produce energy, resulting in acceleration of the B-oxidation cycle and increasing oxidation of fatty acids or energy. B-
oxidation cycle results in formation of acetyl-CoA - CORRECT ANSWER Role of Acetyl-CoA"
"Role:Oxaloacetate is also used in gluconeogenesis, during starvation & uncontrolled DM oxaloacetate levels are insufficient due to gluconeogenesis... this depletion furthers the amount of acetyl-CoA which activates ketogenesis Clinical Implications:Oxaloacetate (an intermediate) is involved in: Citric acid cyclegluconeogenesisurea cycleamino acid synthesisfatty acid
synthesis - CORRECT ANSWER Effect on oxaloacetate"
"Origin:proteins secreted by liver and germ cell tumors - CORRECT ANSWER Tumor
Marker:Alpha Fetoprotein"
"Origin:GI, pancreas, lung, breast, ect - CORRECT ANSWER Tumor
Marker:Carcinoembryonic Antigen"
"Origin:Germ cell - CORRECT ANSWER Tumor Marker:Beta Human Chorionic
gonadotropin"
"Origin: Prostate - CORRECT ANSWER Tumor Marker:Prostate Specific Antigen"
"Definition:arise from epithelial tissue Ex:Adenocarcinoma: arising from ductal/glandular
glands - CORRECT ANSWER Carcino- (prefix)"
"Definition:connective tissue Ex:malignant cancers of the skeletal muscle are known as
rhabdomyosarcomas - CORRECT ANSWER Sarco- (prefix)"
"Benign tumors generally named according to the tissue from which they arise Ex:- benign tumor
of fat cells is a lipoma- smooth muscle of uterus is leiomyoma - CORRECT ANSWER -oma
(suffix)" "Definition:-preinvasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin- localized to the epithelium- not yet malignant- 3 fates: can remain stable for long time, progress to invasive/met CA, or regress and disappear Ex:- # of sites including cervix, skin, oral cavity, esophagus and bronchus- in breast, ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) fills the mammary ducts but
has not progressed to local tissue invasion - CORRECT ANSWER Carcinoma in Situ"
"multiple organs, including brain- via portal vein, LV - CORRECT ANSWER Lung"
"liver - via mesenteric lymphatics, portal venous system,lungs - via IVC, RV, PA - CORRECT
ANSWER Colorectal"
"lungs, liver, brain- lymph to periaortic area to subclavian vein to RV - CORRECT ANSWER
Testicular" "bones (especially lumbar spine), liver - regional lymph and veins which drain to batson plexus
CORRECT ANSWER Prostate"
"bones, lung, brain, liver- axillary, transpectoral and internal mammary lymph - CORRECT
ANSWER Breast Ca Metastasis sites"
"lymphatics, liver, bones - direct extension - CORRECT ANSWER Head and Neck"
"The measure of solute concentration in a solution, in humans it is basically the concentration of
the plasma. - CORRECT ANSWER Osmolality"
"The movement of water "down" a concentration gradient, that is, across a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration.
- CORRECT ANSWER Osmosis" "The amount of pressure or force that is exerted by solute molecules of a given compartment. The higher the osmolality the higher the osmotic pressure. This is a pulling force and will pull water into a compartment. This is the force that must be overcome by hydrostatic pressure to oppose
osmosis. - CORRECT ANSWER Osmotic Pressure"
"The force within a fluid compartment- the mechanical force of fluid against the walls of the compartment, i.e. blood pressure. This is a pushing force and pushes fluid outside the
compartment. - CORRECT ANSWER Hydrostatic Pressure"
"The force which helps to keep water/fluid within a compartment. It contributes to osmotic
pressure and is exerted by plasma proteins. The main plasma protein is albumin. - CORRECT
ANSWER Oncotic Pressure"
"The amount of blood within the arterial space which effectively perfuses the organs and tissues.
CORRECT ANSWER Effective Arterial Blood Volume"
"Secreted by the pituitary gland in response to a water deficit, Na excess or a low BP. It causes the kidneys to reabsorb H2O thus increasing plasma volume. With fluid loss (vomiting, diarrhea or excessive sweating) a decrease in blood volume and blood pressure occurs. Baroreceptors (located in Right and Left atria, large veins, aorta, pulmonary arteries and carotid sinus), signal
the hypothalamus to release ADH. - CORRECT ANSWER Antidiuretic Hormone"
"The person produces less urine causing the blood volume to increase. - CORRECT ANSWER
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System" "Released from the atria or ventricle of the heart. Works opposite of the RAAS to decrease blood
volume - CORRECT ANSWER Natriuretic Hormones"
"Promotes urinary excretion of Na and H2O thus decreasing blood volume. - CORRECT
ANSWER Natriuretic Hormones"
"Dehydration from vomiting or diarrhea and sweating - CORRECT ANSWER etiology of Fluid
Volume Deficit"
"Poor skin turgor, dry mucous membranes, sunken eyes, sunken fontanels, decreased urine
output and fatigue - CORRECT ANSWER clinical manifestations of Fluid Volume Deficit"
"Intake or retention of fluid that exceeds fluid needs. Can be caused by renal failure. - CORRECT
ANSWER etiology of Fluid Volume Excess"
"skin tightness, eye puffiness, rales on ausculation - CORRECT ANSWER clinical
manifestations of edema" "Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure caused by thrombophlebitis, hepatic obstruction, right heart failure, tight clothing, prolonged standing, CHF and renal failure, liver disease, protein malnutrition (from decreased production of plasma proteins), glomerular disease, trauma,
hemorrhage, burns and cirrhosis - CORRECT ANSWER etiology of edema"
"Generalized edema (uniform distribution of fluid throughout the body), dependent edema (fluid accumulation in gravity dependent areas of body), localized edema (limited to site of injury) Edema is identified by swelling and puffiness,weight gain, dehydration from sequestering of
fluids. - CORRECT ANSWER clinical manifestations of edema"
"mild - CORRECT ANSWER Serum Na level: 125-135 mEq/L severity"
"anorexia, apathy, restlessness, nausea, lethargy, muscle cramps. - CORRECT ANSWER
Serum Na level: 125-135 mEq/L clinical manifestations"
"moderate - CORRECT ANSWER Serum Na level: 120-125 mEq/L. severity"
"agitation, disorientation, headache - CORRECT ANSWER Serum Na level: 120-125 mEq/L.
clinical manifestations"
"severe - CORRECT ANSWER Serum Na level: < 120mEq/L severity"
"seizures, coma, areflexia, incontinence, death - CORRECT ANSWER Serum Na level: <
120mEq/L clinical manifestations" "1.reduced intake of potassium 2.increased entry of K+ into cells
3.increased losses of body K+ - CORRECT ANSWER hypokalemia"
"Increase in ECF K+ concentration > 5.5 mEq/L.
PTS: 1 REF: Pages 29-30 - CORRECT ANSWER 22. The movement of fluid across the arterial
end of capillary membranes into the interstitial fluid surrounding the capillary is an example of which fluid movement process? a. Hydrostatic pressure b. Osmosis c. Diffusion d. Active transport" “E. Cells decrease in size P. Still functional; imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation. Essentially there is an increase in the catabolism of intracellular organelles, reducing structural components of cell Physiologic: thymus gland in early childhood Pathological: disuse (muscle atrophy d/ decrease workload, pressure, use, blood supply,
nutrition, hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation) - CORRECT ANSWER Atrophy"
"E: cells increase in number, mitosis (cell division) must occur, size of cell does not change Phys: increased rate of division, increase in tissue mass after damage or partial resection; may be compensatory, hormonal, or pathologic Patho: abnormal proliferation of normal cells usually caused by increased hormonal stimulation (endometrial). increase of production of local growth factors Ex: removal of part of the liver lead to hyperplasia of hepatocytes. uterine or mammary gland
enlargement during pregnancy - CORRECT ANSWER Hyperplasia"
"E. Not true adaptation; Cells abnormal change in size, shape, organization (classified as mild, moderate, severe) P. caused by cell injury/irritation, characterized by disordered cell growth. aka atypical hyperplasia or pre-cancer, a disorderly proliferation Physiologic: N/A Pathologic: squamous dysplasia of cervix from HPV shows up on pap smear, breast cancer development; pap smears often show dysplastic cells of the cervix that must undergo
laser/surgical tx - CORRECT ANSWER Dysplasia"
"E: reversible change, one type of cell changes to another type for survival P: reversible; results from exposure of the cells to chronic stressors, injury, or irritation; Cancer can arise from this area, stimulus induces a reprogramming of stem cells under the influence of cytokines and growth factors Ex: Patho: Columnar cells change to squamous cells in lungs of smoker or normal ciliated epithelial cells of the bronchial linings are replaced by stratified squamous epithelial cells.; Phys:
Barrett Esophagus- normal squamous cells change to columnar epithelial cells in response to
reflux, aka intestinal metaplasia - CORRECT ANSWER Metaplasia"
"In transit lymphatics, lung, liver, brain, GI tract - CORRECT ANSWER Melanoma
metastasis" "Local invasion, followed by invasion of surrounding tissues. Cells then may invade blood and lymphatic vessels. They must survive in circulation, then enter and survive in a new location.
Then the cells can multiply and form a new tumor. - CORRECT ANSWER Mechanisms of ca
metastasis" "T= tumor size >/= correlates with metastatic ability N= whether lymph nodes are involved
M= extra nodal involvement (liver, lungs) - CORRECT ANSWER TNM staging system"
"In venous system- 20% - CORRECT ANSWER Intravascular fluid compartment"
"The measure of solute concentration in a fluid.
280-295 mOsm - CORRECT ANSWER Osmolality"
"Surrounds the cells and bathes them in nutrients- 20% - CORRECT ANSWER Interstitial
fluid compartment"
"Within the cells- 40% uk - CORRECT ANSWER Intracellular fluid compartment"
"Passive- the movement of water from an area of low concentration of solute to one of higher
concentration - CORRECT ANSWER Osmosis"
"Pulling- the amount of pressure or force that is exerted by solute molecules of a given
compartment - CORRECT ANSWER Osmotic pressure"
"Blood pressure- pushes fluid outside of the vessels, the force of fluid against the walls of a
compartment- venous obstruction, Na and water retention - CORRECT ANSWER Hydrostatic
pressure" "Colloid pressure keeps water inside the compartment, attracts water from interstitial space back
into the capillary- losses or diminished albumin - CORRECT ANSWER Oncotic pressure"
"The amount of blood within the arterial space- ECF changes will cause changes in the EABV in
the same direction - CORRECT ANSWER Effective arterial blood volume"
