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NSC 313
COURSE TITLE: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AS APPLIED IN NURSING
COURSE CODE: NSC 313
COURSE GUIDE
NSC 313 is a three-credit unit course and a 300 level core course available for
B.NSc. students who wish to develop knowledge and skills in the nursing care of
the child.
This course is designed to expose you to an understanding of the concept and
theories of child development. It will enable you to apply psychological concepts
and theories to the actual care of the of children to help children benefit maximally
from nursing care.
The course consists of twenty- one (21) units under five modules. This course guide
explain to you briefly what the course is about, what course materials you will use
and how you can go through these materials with maximum benefit. Course Aim
The course’s broad objective is to build in you, the ability to understand and apply
developmental psychological principles, concepts and theories as well as that of
nursing in the practice of care for the children in contemporary society.
Course Learning Outcome
In order to achieve the learning outcomes, each unit has specific learning outcome
which are usually stated at the beginning of the unit. You are expected to read these
unit learning outcomes before studying the unit and as you progress in your study of
the unit you are also advised to check these objectives. At the completion of each
unit make sure you review those learning outcomes for self- assessment.
At the end of this course you are expected to meet the comprehensive objectives as
stated below. On successful completion of the course you should be able to:
Explain the term “Developmental Psychology” Examine the importance of developmental psychology to the nursing practice. Differentiate the controversies in life span development Discuss the factors influencing the development of Attitude Discuss the three basic components of emotion. Explain the characteristics of an emotionally adjusted person? Define development as applied to developmental psychology; Describe development processes Enumerate and explain the general principles of development.
Describe the process of conception and its significances to child development; Discuss the stages of pre-natal development Differentiate the stages of childhood development. Discuss the characteristics of a toddler. Describe five reflexes found in a neonate. Discuss patterns of physical growth. Explain the term “Individual differences”. Differentiate the types of individual differences Discuss the causes of individual differences Analyze the implication of individual differences in children. State the determinants of health behavior Examine ways in which determinants of health are related to development. Discuss the barriers to accessing health services. Differentiate the developmental task of elementary grade from that of secondary grade. Examine the educational significance of Havighurst theory and suggest appropriate role teachers would play in addressing the developmental issues of the theory. Discuss the four stages of Kohlberg’s Theory of social developments. Compare and contrast Kohlberg’s Theory and Piaget’s Theory of moral development. Examine carefully, the personality issues both before and during the Freudian era pointing out their educational implications for nursing. Identify and explain the roles of teachers in aiding the development of children’s personality at the various stages of development. Define the term “intelligence” Differentiate the components of intelligence. Discuss the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget’s theory. Describe ways the teacher can help in promoting intellectual development. Explain the different phases of language development. Discuss five factors that affect language development. Briefly discuss the child’s relationship with peers. Outline the social learning theory. Describe the following emotions that are associated with the school children: (i) Worry
Facilitation There are 8 hours of facilitation to support this course material. You will be notified of the dates, times and locations of these facilitation as well as the names and phone numbers of your facilitator. MODULE 1: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN NURSING UNIT ONE: Developmental psychology and its importance to nursing practice 1.1.0 INTRODUCTION: Nursing concentrates entirely on assisting individuals recover from serious and chronic diseases, while psychology concentrates on dealing with the emotional issues of individuals. Nurses have to understand the psychology of their patients and help them psychologically for a rapid restoration. Nurses have to manage patients during severe healthcare concerns and deal with their emotions and actions. Patients begin to depend on nurses who try to reduce their emotional stress. It has been seen in many cases that physical sickness results in emotional interference. At this stage, nurses have to be sympathetic and understanding. Nursing staff are trained in a manner that they help sufferers psychologically by dealing with the emotional changes. Psychology in the healthcare industry is trained intentionally. The modern medical literary works on counseling psychology and clinical psychology helps nurses perform their everyday tasks. They communicate with sufferers on a regular basis and it is easy for them to recognize the signs of emotional disruptions compared to other healthcare employees. It guarantees proper care to sufferers and professional services are given to them. The knowledge of the assumptions about how the child develops and his/her inherent characteristics which give rise to personality will afford the nurse the opportunity to guide the parents the on learning processes towards optimal performance of the child.. Psychology has a huge relevance on the nursing practice. Nurses work in a setting where they’re required to interact with other professionals in an effort to bring the best quality care for their patients. They need to fully understand how other people behave and act in certain situations – this is where Psychology comes into play. The definition and importance of developmental psychology is presented to you. 1.2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this Unit, you should be able to; Explain the term “Developmental Psychology” Examine the importance of developmental psychology to the nursing practice. Differentiate the controversies in life span development 1.3.0 MAIN CONTENT: 1.3.1 PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED: The word “Psychology” originated from two Greek words-“psyche” and “logos”. The word logos stand for a rational discourse or a study. The word psyche is interpreted in different ways by psychologists at various periods. Initially the word psyche was interpreted as ‘soul’, then ‘mind’ and at later stage as ‘consciousness’. Now psychology is viewed as a science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behavior of individuals as a whole. In simple terms, it is a science of human behavior. A human being is best understood through his behavior.
The following quote by Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe reveals the importance of studying human behavior.“Behavior is a mirror in which everyone displays his image.” Psychology is basically the study of behavior, mental operations and performance of people. It is also the connection of educational, theoretical and applied science. Student nurses who study psychology devotedly are able to understand the compound process of the brain that commands the actions of all human. They also are able to realize that they can make use of psychology in understanding the behaviors, situations and everyday life of patients. The concern as a nurses is to assist the child to develop the appropriate personality from conception to adolescent. This implies that we must not only know the subject matter but the child. Knowing the child includes knowing how the child grows and develops in the study. Developmental psychology is an aspect of psychology which deals with the development, growth and behaviour in human beings right from the time of conception to the period of adolescence when most of the functions of the body become matured. It also deals with the factors which determine what a child will become in future. It is therefore a scientific approach which aims to explain how children and adults change over time. The aims of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and to optimize development 1.3.2 CONTROVERSIES IN LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT : There are three issues, sometimes called controversies in life-span development. They are; 1.3.2.1 THE NATURE – NURTURE DEBATE The Nature-Nurture debate. This is arguing whether development is due to nature or nurture. Is one’s development as a result of one’s genetic structure (Nature) or one’s care (Nurture)? Nature View: What aspects of your behavior are controlled and what happens when we grow? Nurture View: What aspect of your behavior can we attribute to the way in which we are brought up-what are the environmental, social and human influences on us? At present, there is universal agreement that both nature and nurture are involved. 1.3.2. 2 DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR IN STAGES Whether developments occur continuously or in stages. Is one’s development a gradual and continuous process or does it pass through stages which have to be negotiated one after the other? Behaviorists like Watson, believe that our development is a steady continuous process based on the rate at which we learn new behaviors. But Stage theorists like Freud, Erikson and Piaget believe that development or maturation is an uneven process, with periods of little development followed by dramatic changes in a relatively short time. They argue that however rich or enriched the environment, however keen the parents are that their children should speak or walk – until the child is ready or has matured enoughfor the next stage, it will not happen. In order words, untilthe child has matured biologically, the next stage will not occur. Biological change preceded or prepares us for psychological change. At present, the Stage theorists appear to have the upper hand. Nature theorists tend to be stage theorists while nurture theorists tend to hold to the continuous view.
v. adjust to the professional environment Nursing is a team work and has to work together with other health care team members including her colleagues. She should understand the psychology of people around her to work effectively. She is expected to work in collaboration with other health team members and face the challenges in the professional environment. The knowledge on psychology helps nurses to overcome these challenges in their profession. vi. understand oneself The nurse must understand them that is her attitude, way of thinking, coping abilities, mental mechanisms, overall strength and weakness. Understanding self helps to adjust to the personal and professional life and to lead a well balanced life. vii). In managing patients with different illnesses, both nurses and psychologists not only work in understanding the physical pain associated, but also change their thought and attitudes to improve well-being. viii). With the help of psychology, nurses will know how to interact with their patients based on different factors such as gender and age. For instance, young patients may be more afraid than adults. They may have difficulties in understanding their illness. A nurse can apply his knowledge of child development and psychology and relate to the young patients in a way their apprehensions are alleviated. Thus, psychology can help improve the nurse and patient relationship. As a result, patients can openly interact and communicate with them and inform them about their specific needs. ix). When assessing a patient’s condition, nurses also consider how patient’s respond to their illness. Some patients are optimistic and easily cope with their illness, while others have a negative reaction where they become angry and stubborn. Nurses may find it very difficult to handle such patients and need to include them as part of their evaluation of the patient. x). With psychological knowledge also, nurses are able to get the trust of their patients. This makes the patients more responsive with the instructions they are given. Sometimes, they even take a positive role in their own wellness. 1.1.4.0 SUMMARY : The unit contain the definition of developmental psychology has been presented to you as well as the controversial in life-span development. The importance of developmental psychology has also been discussed.. 1.1.5.0 CONCLUSION : This unit has explained to you issues on developmental psycology and why you should study is as a nurse. It will help you understand the psychological problem of the child and ways to over-come them.
1.1.6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:
Self-Assessment Exercise: Outline the importance of developmental psychology in nursing practice. 1.1.7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT Define the term “Developmental Psychology” Discuss the three controversies in life-span development 1.8.0 References
- Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application.Seventh Edition. Dennis Coon
- Jacob Anthiked (2009). Psychology of Graduate Nurses (General and Educational Psychology) with Question Bank and MCQs. 4th^ Edition. Jaypee Medical Publisher`s Limites. New Delhi.
- Psychology for Nursing. BT Basavanthappa aypee. First Edition 2010 UNIT 2: DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDE AND EMOTIONAL ADJUSMENT 1.2.1.0 Introduction As a nurse you should understand factors the influence attitude development as well as emotions. Along the process of treatment, nurses create a strong relationship with the patients and need to understand what attitude and emotions mean. Nursing staff have to have some outstanding characteristics such as, tolerance, helpful characteristics, sympathy, love for others and the ability to feel the pain of others. All these are based on attitude and emotions. 1.2.2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME By the end of this Unit, you should be able to;
changes in the body tissues and fluids. for example, sex hormones have a vital effect on the development of attitude through their connection with social adjustment. (b) Intellectual development: Intelligence influences the attitude formation. The components of intelligence like memory, understanding, thinking etc play a significant role in formation of attitude. (c ) Emotional Development: Emotions play a dominant role in overt or covert (hidden) behavior manifestation and behaviour is related to attitude. (d) Social development: Social interaction and group processes is the key to attitude formation at any stage of human development. Children having poor social adjustment are more likely to have antisocial attitude. (e ) Ethical and moral development: Each individual develops certain ideals, values and concept of the self in which he takes pride. For enhancing his feelings of self esteem, one tries to develop those attitudes that suit his values and ideals. ii). Factors within the individual’s environment (a). Home and Family: A healthy family environment and positive attitude of the parents and other members bring desirable impact on the children in picking up desirable attitudes. Many antisocial attitude are said to be the product of the faulty upbringing and unpleasant environment at home. (b) Social environment: Contact with the people in neighbourhood, school, community, society and norms, traditions etc influences attitude formation and its reshaping. For example, in schools factors like teachers and their behaviours, class mates or school mates and their behaviours, teaching methods and discipline all contribute towards attitude formation. 1.2.3.4 Attitudinal changes Attitude can be changed. It is not fixed one. They can be changed through the acquisition of new experiences. The following are the ways and means of attitudinal changes:-
- Providing proper education
- Making use of the propaganda machinery (eg, family planning, sanitation, road safety)
- Using fear inducing mechanism (eg. Rules and legal laws against dowry, child marriage, child abuses)
- Using modeling technique (eg. Imitating the behaviours of the heroes and heroines)
- Direct personal experience ( eg. Lack of exercise leading to obesity and diabetes in a person will develop favourable attitude towards exercises).
- Using cognitive dissonance mechanism (eg, In smoking, making a person to think rationally instead of criticizing his negative attitude towards smoking).
- Bringing desired changes in beliefs and values. 1.2.3.5 Implications of Attitude for Nursing Nurses must understand that it is quite natural for their patients and people under their care to differ in respect of their likes and dislikes, levels of IQ and understanding, tolerance for the pain, adjustment to the new situations and environment, social and emotional adjustment etc. She must plan her nursing actions considering these differences in her mind. The knowledge on individual differences helps nurses to learn and provide care which is unique for each individual. Nurses can make their patients and relatives realize that all are not same and there is no point in comparing their treatment with that of others. They cannot simply copy the treatment of others and all cannot be benefitted in the same way. Nurses can understand and guide or protect the patients with inferiority or superiority feelings under their care.
- Nurses can help patients to develop positive and desirable attitude towards the things and persons
- Enable patients and their relatives to bring about attitudinal changes.
- Utilize the techniques of attitudinal change whenever and wherever applicable. 1.2.4 Emotions Human beings are emotional beings and emotions add colour and spice to our life. Emotions are the outward expressions of the feelings. They are usually aroused by external stimuli and emotional expression is directed towards the stimuli in the environment that arouses it. Emotion can be defined as agitated states of mind and body that lead to perform some or other types of behavioural acts. It is a subjective response that is usually accompanied by a physiological change and is associated with a change in behavior. 1.2.4.1 Emotional Development in Children According to IZARD (1982),in Jacob Anthiked (2009), primary emotions emerge between three and six months, typical of these is distress, happiness and other extreme emotions. Izard believes that these emotions are more biologically than socially prompted. Secondary or complex emotions start to occur from about 12 moths, these include embarrassment, pride and similar emotions. There is a connection between the appearance of these emotions and the child
s cognitive development. Another stage is reached when the child can recognizeitself as an individual. This normally takes place at aboutn18 months and when the child can evaluate situation where an emotion requires both an awareness of rules and a self-awareness. At about 24 months. The childs emotional development is such that, in many instances the child has, learned deliberately manipulate its own emotions, to control others. 1.2.4.2 Socialization This can be defined as the process by which we learn the things we need to knowtoenable us to fit into the society to which we belong. Early socialization refers to those things which occur first in this process. The connection between the developing emotions and early socialization is fairly
1.2.5.2 COMPONENTS OF EMOTION
There are three basic components:
- Cognitive component:- Includes the thoughts, values and expectations that help in determining the intensity and type of emotions.
- Physiological component:- It is also known as a arousal. This is an internal physical changes that occur in the bodies when one experiences an emotion.
- Behavioural or Expressive component:- Action done as a result of cognitive and physiology. Ex. Emotional expression is a form of communication. A baby’s smile can create bonding. 1.2.5.3 Physiological response to emotions There are bodily changes happening during positive as well as negative emotions. Internal bodily changes: It includes changes in
- Functioning of heart
- Blood circulation
- Functioning of digestive system
- Sugar level
- Red Blood cells
- Temperature
- Secretions of ducts and ductless glands
- Sweating and perspiration
- Tone of the muscles
- Functioning of the brain 1.2.5.4 External bodily changes: These are observed in
- Face as facial expressions
- Body postures
- Voice as vocal expressions 1.2.6 Emotional Adjustments Emotional adjustment is the realization of one’s emotions and feelings and controlling feelings when making relationship with others.
It is the capability of adjusting to his self and environment in relation to the use and expression of his own emotions. An emotionally adjusted person has an ability to express all types of emotions, positive or negative, in an appropriate degree with reasonable control at the appropriate time. 1.2.6.1 Characteristics of an emotionally adjusted person are
- All emotions are easily recognized in him
- Expresses emotions in a socially desirable way
- Exercises control over his emotions
- Not a day dreamer.
- Will not run away from realities
- Guided more by his intellect than his emotions
- Never puts the responsibility of his own mistakes on others
- Possess adequate self concept and self respect
- Considers others
- Never engages in antisocial behavior
- Maintains social relationships
- Has emotional stability 1.2.6.2 Emotions in Health and illness All emotions are basically useful to our survival. Emotions are capable of exercising a leading role in the health and happiness of the individual. An emotionally adjusted person is found to possess a good health, free from illness or diseases. An emotionally maladjusted individual is characterized with a poor health and ailing personality. The person with positive emotions enjoys good physical health Many of our chronic physical conditions and illnesses are linked with emotional maladjustment. Emotional maladjustments increases the individual’s susceptibility to many physical and mental ailments. 1.2.7.0 Summery: 1.2.8. CONCLUSION:
1.2.6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:
Self-Assessment Exercise: Outline the characteristics of an emotionally adjusted person
- Enumerate and explain the general principles of development. 2.1.3.0 MAIN CONTENT 2.1.3.1 Development This refers to qualitative changes in an organism. It is a progressive series of orderly and coherent changes in human beings. It is progressive in the sense that the changes are distinctional and lead to moving forward. It is orderly and coherent because there is a definite relationship between a given stage and the stages which follow it. Development can be described as a complex process of integrating many structures and functions in an organism. As a result of the integration, changes are dependent upon what preceded them and they in turn affect what comes after. The qualitative changes that come upon an organism are as a result of the accumulation of experiences. The experiences derive from hereditary and environmental influences. Thus, individuals reflect on their experiences and become more refined and matured in dealing with new and novel situations. 2.1.3.3 Developmental Processes (1) Growth: Growth refers to quantitative changes in an organism. This usually involves permanent increase in size and structure of organisms. These quantitative changes are both physical and mental. These include physical changes in height, weight, girth, internal organs and mental changes in memory, reasoning, perception and creative imagination. All these changes make the child to be physically grown and mentally responsive. The quantitative changes in height, weight, girth and others are as a result of multiple cell divisions called MITOSIS (Mitotic Cell Division). This usually involves body cells called Somatic Cells (Vegetative cells). Somatic cells always have 23 pairs of Chromosome (i.e. 46) called the Diploid number (2n). In the process of Mitosis, one cell divides into two, then into four, eight etc. Each daughter cell is always similar in every way to the parent cell and they always have the Diploid number (2n) of Chromosomes. (2) Maturation : Maturation is the process of gradual unfolding of the inborn potentialities of traits present in the individual because of hereditary endowment. According to Gessel, “Maturation is the net sum of the effects operating in a self-limited life-cycle”. This definition connotes individual differences. Maturation goes along with physical growth and the development of the central nervous system. Time and experience are also inevitable. Maturation is a function of two major factors, which are in turn dependent on time and experience viz: Mitosis n = 23 Chromosomes n n n n n n n
(i) Phylogenetic Functions These are functions, which are common to all members of a species. These include crawling, creeping, sitting, walking etc. Experience is not necessary to these functions as they are time, age and physical and mental maturity dependent. (ii) Ontogenetic Functions These depend on experience. They are functions common to individuals. Some of these functions are swimming, climbing, painting, speech, etc. Here, without experience or training, development cannot take place. It should be noted that no hereditary tendency can mature fully without environmental support i.e. environment influences development. Activity I Distinguish between maturation, growth and development. 2.1.3.4 General Principles of Development Every species follows a pattern of development peculiar to that species. One of the reasons why the development of human beings is so similar is because our common specifies heredity (DNA) guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes at about the same points in our lives Prenatal and postnatal developments have a genetic sequence with certain traits or personal qualities appearing at fixed intervals. Genetic study of children over a period of time has shown that development follows a fixed pattern and the pattern is influenced by experience. Every child has a unique pattern of growth. Such patterns are however, a part of an established order of nature. The identified principles that are true to human development are referred to as the “general principles of development”.
1. Cephalocaudal: Growth Patterns According to this principle, development spread over the body from head to foot. This means that improvement in structures and functions come first in the head area, then in the trunk and leg region. The organs in the area of the head develop first and mature first before the organs in other areas. The head develops and achieves its final forms before the trunk and the legs. The child is first able to see, hear sound and jingles before using his hands and legs in a meaningful way. 2. Proxismodistal: Growth Pattern This principle holds that development proceeds from the central axis of the body towards the extremities. In the Foetus, the head and the trunk are well developed before the rudimentary limb buds appear. The arm buds gradually appear and develop into the hands and lastly fingers before his hands and fingers respectively and can use the latter as a unit before he/she can control the movements of his/her fingers. Structure therefore precedes function. 3. The Principle of Differentiation Development proceeds from simple to complex, from homogenous to heterogeneous and from general to specific (from general and diffuse responses to more differentiated and specific ones). Thus, coordination of large muscle groups precedes fine muscle movements. At conception, the mother egg-cell and the sperm from the father fuse to form the Zygote. The Zygote itself contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. It starts to divide itself into 2 then 4 to 8 up to billions of cells that form a body, be it circulatory, muscular, nervous or skeletal. In both
6. Principle of Complexity of Growth Growth is an extremely complex process. It has different collective aspects. It is complex because what happens to one area affects other areas. The effect of this is that it is not easy to specify causal relationships since there can be other causes in other areas i.e. causes for growth retardation in a child may be traced to reasons other than malnutrition. 7. Structure Generally Precedes Function It may be because of emotional stress, illness, social isolation or physical harm. All physical components of the body including the brain usually mature and get ready before they can be functional. Before any organ can be used by the child, such an organ must be physically and physiologically ready before they can perform developmental tasks. 8. Principle of Uniqueness of Individuals The principle asserts that every individual is unique; that there are no two people that are exactly alike. Every child’s pattern and rate of growth is peculiar to him or her. We may say that an average age for a child to walk is 12 months, yet some children walk later or earlier than this. Average is therefore theoretical however useful it may be. Among twins of the same background, there are still some obvious differences. One may be more active than the other. Uniqueness occurs in either specific, general, sensitivity or vigour. By sensitivity we mean overall reaction to stimuli. This is why homozygotic twins of the same background could be different. Some children like being quiet, others respond to stimuli gradually and yet others respond very fast. This gives rise to individuality in the classroom. Some children are more active and very vocal while others are quiet and calm. 9. Modifiability of Rates and Patterns of Growth The view of this principle is that growth is natural but the rate and pattern of growth can be modified by various factors and techniques. Some of these factors are:
- Nutrition and Drug taken by the mother.
- Environmental Stimulation. 3. Opportunity to Learn.
- Illness and Disease.
- Genetic aspect (Mutational changes). The presence or absence of some of these factors can retard the rate and pattern of growth. 2.3.5 Implications of the Growth and Development of Principles for Teaching and Learning Processes
- The fact that the students in the class are at varying levels of growth and development, have acquired different types of potentialities implies that though the same curriculum is being used, the classroom setting must be appropriate and rich enough to accommodate these differences. The use of instructional aids of various types often helps greatly in this situation.
- Also, the children are at various levels of developments meaning they cannot all perform the same developmental tasks. The teaching strategy of the teacher must reflect this in the classroom otherwise not all the pupils will be carried along. This should be noted too during skill performance.
- The need for child study by the teacher is emphasized.
2.1.4.0 SUMMARY :
In this Unit development processes has been presented to you and explained to enable you understand what goes on the children as they grow. The general principles of development were also discussed.. 2.1.5.0 CONCLUSION : We have discussed that development refers to a series of qualitative, progressive and orderly changes in an organism. These changes are brought about by the interplay of the forces of growth; maturation and environmental factors. Genetic study of children has shown that development follows a fixed pattern and the pattern is influenced by experience. These patterns are ordered in nature. These are called the principles of development. About eight of such principles have been identified in human development and their implications for education were discussed.
2.1.6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:
Self-Assessment Exercise: Explain the general principles of development . 2.1.7.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT Define development as applied to developmental psychology; • Describe development processes • Enumerate and explain the general principles of development 2.1.8.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
- Dennis Coon. Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application.Seventh Edition.
- Durojaiye, M.O.A. (1976). A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans.
- Jacob Anthiked (2009). Psychology of Graduate Nurses (General and Educational Psychology) with Question Bank and MCQs. 4th^ Edition. Jaypee Medical Publisher`s Limites. New Delhi.
- National Teachers` Institute, Kaduna. Post Graduate Diploma in Education. PDE 102: Education Technology
- National Teachers` Institute, Kaduna. Post Graduate Diploma in Education. PDE 106. Educational Psychology 1
