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This study guide provides a comprehensive overview of key concepts in pathophysiology, focusing on the structure and function of the brain, neurological disorders, and related conditions. It includes definitions, explanations, and examples to aid in understanding and preparing for a final exam in a pathophysiology course. The guide covers topics such as cancer staging, brain anatomy, neurological disorders like epilepsy and multiple sclerosis, and cerebrovascular accidents (strokes).
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cancer stage 0 no cancer present cancer stage 1 cancer confined to original origin cancer stage 2 cancer is locally invasive cancer stage 3 cancer is spread to lymph nodes
cancer stage 4 cancer is spread to distant sites TNM system of cancer staging: Tumor spread; Node involvement; Metastasis presence cancer risk factors tobacco use diet alcohol consumption ionizing radiation UV radiation (causes basal & squamous cell carcinomas) electromagnetic radiation unprotected sex viruses toxic chemicals air pollution
Reticular Activating System (RAS) essential for wakefulness sulci wrinkles between gyri white matter myelinated neurons under cerebral cortex longitudinal fissure separates brain hemispheres prefrontal area goal-oriented behavior (concentration) short term/recall memory thought processes
inhibits limbic areas premotor area programming movement frontal fields controls eye movements primary motor area controls voluntary movements Broca's area controls motor aspects of speech parietal lobe somatic sensory input
amygdala regulates emotional response limbic system is made up of amygdala (emotions) hippocampus (memory) thalamus (senses) hypothalamus homeostasis; Autonomic Nervous System (ANS); body temperature; behavioral patterns; autonomic nervous system controls involuntary movements the midbrain is made up of superior colliculi
inferior colliculi substantia nigra cerebral aqueduct superior colliculi involuntary/voluntary visual motor movements inferior colliculi involuntary/voluntary auditory motor movements substantia nigra synthesizes dopamine cerebral aqueduct carries CSF
effects of a seizure include temporary altered level of arousal altered brain function causes of seizures metabolic defects malformations genetic disorders acute CNS infections brain tumor illicit drug use fever vascular diseases motor syndromes epilepsy recurring episodic seizures without treatment due to genetic malformations that trigger brain wiring abnormalities; imbalance in neurottransmitters
tonic phase epileptic phase of muscle contraction with ↑ muscle tone and loss of consciousness clonic phase epileptic phase of alternating contraction and relaxation of muscles ICP IntraCranial Pressure causes of ↑ ICP tumor growth edema excess CSF hemorrhage
stroke risk factors smoking arterial hypertension diabetic insulin resistance lipoprotein-A impaired cardiac function Chlamydia pneumoniae thrombotic strokes strokes caused by arterial occlusions caused by thrombi formation in arteries supplying the brain or intracranial vessels thrombus may form due to atherosclerosis ↑ coagulation dehydration hypotension
transient ischemic attack (TIA) brief episode of neurologic dysfunction caused by a focal disturbance of brain or retinal ischemia with symptoms lasting less than an hour; no evidence of infarction; complete recovery causes of TIA platelet clumps or vessel narrowing with spasm causing circulation blockage embolic stroke stroke caused by blockage of cerebral vessels causes of embolic stroke blood clot that has broken free and traveled to the brain as an embolus most common location of embolus causing stroke middle cerebral artery
hemiparesis/paralysis may result from hemorrhage bleeding spreading into subarachnoid space diagnosing strokes involves the use of a(n) magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) 4 classifications of vertebral injuries
vertebral body is compressed anteriorly comminuted (burst) vertebral fracture vertebral body shattered into several pieces most common vertebral injuries occur at cervical and lumbar regions results of vertebral injuries ∙ microhemorrhages in central gray matter & pia arachnoid space ∙ edema in white matter ∙↑ NE, ischemia, vascular damage, tissue necrosis ∙ cord swelling ∙ meninges thicken cord swelling is fatal in what area of the vertebrae and why cervical area because impairs diaphragm function
blurred vision nausea treating autonomic hyperreflexia corticosteroids (to decrease secondary injury); medicine decreasing BP; elevated head of bed; remove injurous stimuli; coup directly impacted area of brain injury multiple sclerosis (MS) aqcuired autoimmune inflammatory disorder involving demyelination; irreversible axon degeneration and scarring onset of MS 20 - 40 yrs old; most common in women
pathology of MS B lymphocytes, plasma cells, activated T cells, and proinflammatory cytokines, cause inflammation, oligodendrocyte injury, and demyelination preexisting factors affecting onset of MS infection trauma pregnancy MS attacks caused by
