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Personality Theories and Assessment
Brief Chapter Outline
I. The Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality A. Freudian Classical Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality B. Neo-Freudian Theories of Personality II. The Humanistic Approach and the Social-Cognitive Approach to Personality A. The Humanistic Approach to Personality B. The Social-Cognitive Approach to Personality III. Trait Theories of Personality and Personality Assessment A. Trait Theories of Personality B. Personality Assessment
Detailed Chapter Outline
Personality is a person’s internally based characteristics of acting and thinking.
Introducing the Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality Marianne Miserandino (1994) presented a way to stimulate discussion of psychoanalytic theory. She presented 15 statements with which students indicate their extent of agreement. You can have your students respond to some or all of these items to begin discussion of this material.
Please give your opinions about the following statements, using this response range: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree
_____ 1. Events that occurred during childhood have no effect on one’s personality in adulthood.
_____ 2. Sexual adjustment is easy for most people.
_____ 3. Culture and society have evolved as ways to curb human beings’ natural aggressiveness.
_____ 4. Little boys should not become too attached to their mothers.
_____ 5. It is possible to deliberately ―forget‖ something too painful to remember.
_____ 6. People who chronically smoke, eat, or chew gum have some deep psychological problem.
_____ 7. Competitive people are no more aggressive than noncompetitive people.
_____ 8. Fathers should remain somewhat aloof to their daughters.
_____ 9. Toilet training is natural and not traumatic for most children.
_____ 10. The phallus is a symbol of power.
_____ 11. A man who dates a woman old enough to be his mother has problems.
_____ 12. There are some women who are best described as being ―castrating bitches.‖
_____ 13. Dreams merely replay events that occurred during the day and have no deep meaning.
_____ 14. There is something wrong with a woman who dates a man who is old enough to be her father.
_____ 15. A student who wants to postpone an exam by saying, ―My grandmother lied... er, I mean died,‖ should probably be allowed the postponement.
Note to Teacher: Items 1, 2, 7, 9, 13, and 15 should be reverse-coded. That is, a response of ―1‖ should be changed to a ―5.‖ A response of ―2‖ should be changed to ―4.‖ A response of ―4‖ should be changed to ―2.‖ A response of ―5‖ should be changed to ―1.‖ Higher total scores (i.e., closer to 75) indicate stronger agreement with psychoanalytic ideas. Lower total scores (i.e., closer to 15) indicate stronger disagreement with psychoanalytic ideas.
Statement 1 deals with general psychosexual development. Statement 6 deals with the oral state of psychosexual development. Statement 9 deals with the anal state of psychosexual development. Statements 4 and 8 deal with the phallic stage of psychosexual development and the Oedipal complex in particular. Statements 10 and 12 also deal with the phallic state and the notion of penis envy in particular. Statements 2, 11, and 14 deal with the genital state of psychosexual development. Statements 3 and 7 deal with the latent death instinct manifested as aggression. Statement 5 deals with repression. Statement 13 deals with dream symbolism. Statement 15 deals with the notion of Freudian slips. Source: Miserandino, M. (1994). Freudian principles in everyday life. Teaching of Psychology, 21 , 93–95. Reprinted with permission from Taylor and Francis.
a. The primary defense mechanism is repression , unknowingly placing an unpleasant memory or thought in the unconscious so that people are not anxious about it. b. Regression is reverting to immature behavior from an earlier stage of development. c. Denial is refusing to acknowledge anxiety-provoking realities. d. Displacement is redirecting unacceptable feelings from the original source to a safer substitute target. e. Sublimation is replacing socially unacceptable impulses with socially acceptable behavior. f. Reaction formation is acting in exactly the opposite way to one’s unacceptable impulses. g. Projection is attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings and thoughts to others rather than oneself. h. Rationalization is creating false excuses for one’s unacceptable feelings, thoughts, or behavior. Unhealthy personalities develop not only when people become too dependent on defense mechanisms, but also when the id or superego is unusually strong or the ego is unusually weak.
- Freud’s psychosexual stage theory was developed chiefly from his own childhood memories and from his years of interactions with his patients and their case studies that included their own childhood memories. An erogenous zone is the area of the body where the id’s pleasure-seeking psychic energy is focused during a particular stage of psychosexual development. A change in erogenous zones designates the beginning of a new stage. Fixation occurs when a portion of the id’s pleasure-seeking energy remains in a stage because of excessive gratification or frustration of our instinctual needs. Fixation can continue throughout a person’s life and affect behavior and personality traits. Freud identified five psychosexual stages (see Table 8.2). a. In the oral stage (birth to 18 months), the erogenous zones are the mouth, lips, and tongue, and children derive pleasure from oral activities such as sucking, biting, and chewing. b. In the anal stage (from about 18 months to 3 years), the erogenous zone is the anus, and children derive pleasure from having and withholding bowel movements. Parents try to get children to develop self-control during toilet training. If children react to harsh toilet training by trying to get even with the parents by withholding bowel movements, an anal-retentive personality with the traits of orderliness, neatness, stinginess, and obstinacy develops. An anal-expulsive personality develops when children rebel against the harsh training and have bowel movements whenever and wherever they desire. c. In the phallic stage (from age 3 to 6 years), the erogenous zone is the genitals, and children derive pleasure from genital stimulation. In the Oedipus conflict , a little boy becomes sexually attracted to his mother and fears the father (his rival) will find out and castrate him. In the Electra conflict, a little girl is attracted to her father because he has a penis; she wants one and feels inferior without one (penis envy). In the process of identification , children adopt the characteristics of the same- sex parent and learn the parent’s gender role (the set of behaviors expected of someone of a particular sex). During identification, the superego begins to develop. d. In the latency stage of psychosexual development (from about age 6 to puberty), there is no erogenous zone. Sexual drives become less active, and the focus is on cognitive and social development. e. In the genital stage of psychosexual development (from puberty through adulthood), the erogenous zone is again the genitals, and the person develops normal heterosexual relationships in the process of moving toward adult sexual relationships.
- Psychologists have evaluated several aspects of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality. Freud’s notion of an ―unconscious‖ level of awareness is not accessible and is thus impossible to examine or test scientifically. Unconscious information processing does affect our thinking and behavior, but the unconscious is not a storehouse of instinctual drives, conflicts, and repressed memories and desires. Although early childhood experiences are important, there is little evidence for Freud’s psychosexual stages affecting development. But there is evidence for the importance of many of the concepts that were discussed in the developmental chapter. Contemporary researchers think repression seldom, if ever, really occurs. Psychologists now understand how Freud’s questioning during therapy may have created ―repressed‖ memories in his patients. There is evidence that people fight hard to maintain self-esteem, but do not necessarily do so through defense mechanisms as Freud described them.
Scientific American Introductory Psychology Videos: Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (9:00) This video offers an excellent summary of various theories of personality. It includes amusing examples of people acting out various Freudian theories as well as other clips and animations to assist students in understanding how these theories might be applied to their own lives. This video would work well as either an introduction to the topic or as a review of this section within the chapter.
B. Neo-Freudian Theories of Personality The personality theorists who came after Freud agreed with many of Freud’s basic ideas, but they differed from him in one or more important ways.
- Carl Jung’s collective unconscious is the accumulated universal experiences of humankind. All human beings inherit the same cumulative storehouse of all human experiences. These experiences are manifested in archetypes , which are images and symbols of all the important themes in the history of humankind (for example, God, mother, hero). The notions of the collective unconscious and archetypes are more mystical than scientific and cannot be empirically tested. Jung proposed two main personality attitudes: (1) extraversion, and (2) introversion. He also proposed the following four styles or functions of gathering information. (1) Sensing is the reality function in which the world is carefully perceived. (2) Intuiting is subjective perception. (3) Thinking is logical deduction. (4) Feeling is the subjective emotional function. The two personality attitudes and four functions are the basis for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which is still widely used today.
- Alfred Adler theorized that people’s main motivation is what he termed ―striving for superiority‖ to overcome the sense of inferiority that is felt by infants, in a totally helpless and dependent state. A healthy person learns to cope with these feelings, becomes competent, and develops a sense of self-esteem. An inferiority complex is the strong feeling of inferiority felt by people who never overcome the initial feeling of inferiority.
- Karen Horney focused on dealing with our need for security. A child’s caregivers must provide a sense of security for a healthy personality to develop. If they don’t, basic anxiety, a feeling of helplessness and insecurity in a hostile world, results. Horney identified three neurotic personality patterns: a. Moving toward people—a compliant, submissive person b. Moving against people—an aggressive, domineering person c. Moving away from people—a detached, aloof person
Neither Maslow’s nor Rogers’s theory is research-based. Figure 8.3 presents a pictorial summary of Roger’s self theory. B. The Social-Cognitive Approach to Personality The social-cognitive approach is research-based and combines elements of three major research perspectives (cognitive, behavioral, and sociocultural approaches). Proponents of the approach believe that learning through environmental conditioning contributes to personality development and that social learning/modeling and cognitive processes, such as perception and thinking, are also involved and are actually more important to the development of personality than behavioral principles.
- Bandura’s self-system is the set of cognitive processes by which people observe, evaluate, and regulate their social behavior. People consciously choose which behavior to engage in, acting in accordance with their assessment of whether the behavior will be reinforced. Self-efficacy is a judgment of one’s effectiveness in dealing with particular situations, and it plays a major role in determining behavior. Low self-efficacy is associated with depression, anxiety, and helplessness. High self-efficacy is associated with self-confidence, positive outlook, and minimal self-doubt.
Psychology: The Human Experience Teaching Modules Module 19 (5:00) is centered on an interview with Albert Bandura, who states that self- efficacy is the basis for motivation and well-being. Self-efficacy is differentiated from self- confidence. Self-efficacy is presented in relation to goal-setting behavior and persevering in the face of obstacles and setbacks. Bandura claims that social reformers, such as former President Jimmy Carter, must possess a high level of self-efficacy to be successful in their undertakings. This module could be used as either a preview or a review of the section in the text on Bandura’s self-system.
- In Rotter’s locus of control theory , locus of control refers to people’s perception of the extent to which they control what happens to them. External locus of control is the perception that chance or an external force beyond people’s control determines their fate. Internal locus of control is the perception that people control their own fate. People with an internal locus of control perceive their success as dependent on their own needs, but they may or may not feel that they have the competence (efficacy) to bring about successful outcomes in various situations. People with an internal locus of control are psychologically and physically better off than people with an external locus of control. External locus of control may contribute to learned helplessness , a sense of hopelessness in which people think they are unable to prevent unpleasant events.
- Self-perception theory emphasizes attributions in understanding how personality develops. In self-perception, attribution is the process by which people explain their own behavior and that of others. Internal attribution means that people attribute the outcome of their behavior to themselves. External attribution means that people attribute the outcome to factors outside themselves. Self-serving bias is the tendency to make attributions so that people can perceive themselves favorably. If the outcome is positive, people make an internal attribution for it. If the outcome is negative, people make an external attribution for it. Self-serving bias is adaptive because it protects people from falling prey to learned helplessness and depression.
Class Activity: Self-Serving Bias The text discusses how our attributions about ourselves tend to position us in a favorable light, a phenomenon called self-serving bias. Dunn (1989) describes a simple activity in which students are asked to anonymously write down a list of their strengths and a list of their weaknesses. After class, the instructor tabulates the number of strengths and weaknesses, calculating the mean number of each. An announcement of results at the next class tends to reveal that students report more strengths than weaknesses, suggesting a self- serving bias. The discussion that ensues may extend to potential reasons for the self- serving bias (e.g., to protect self-esteem or as a reflection of how we process or recall information about ourselves). Source: Dunn, D. (1989). Demonstrating a self-serving bias. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 21 – 22. Reprinted with permission from Taylor and Francis.
PsychSim 5 Tutorial: Helplessly Hoping This relatively short module contains information pertaining to the social-cognitive approach to personality. The roles of personal control and optimism are presented, with visual depiction of Seligman’s experiments on escape and avoidance learning. (The ethics of these experiments are questioned.) Information is presented about sex differences in personal power and personal control and how such facts may be partially responsible for sex differences in depression (women tend to have less power and control and hence higher rates of depression than do men). The module concludes with a presentation of Rodin and Langer’s research on how personal control over one’s environment, in the form of decision-making power, is related to well-being in nursing home residents.
III. Trait Theories of Personality and Personality Assessment
Worth Video Anthology for Introductory Psychology: Personality Traits (3:32) This video presents an overview of the three major trait theories of personality presented in the text. The importance of both heredity (nature) and the environment (nurture) is stressed. This video could be used to preview or review information in this section of the text.
Personality traits are internal, relatively stable characteristics that define an individual’s personality; traits are continuous dimensions. Trait theorists use factor analysis and other statistical techniques to determine how many basic personality factors (or traits) are needed to describe human personality, as well as what these factors are. Factor analysis identifies clusters of items on a personality test that measure the same factor/trait. A. Trait Theories of Personality Each trait is a dimension, a continuum ranging from one extreme of the dimension to the other.
- Raymond B. Cattell and Hans Eysenck each tried to determine the number and kind of personality traits. Cattell, using factor analysis, found that 16 traits were necessary to describe human personality. Eysenck, also using factor analysis, argued for three primary trait dimensions. Cattell and Eysenck differed because the number of traits depends on the level of categorization in the factor analysis. Eysenck’s theory is at a more general and inclusive level of abstraction than Cattell’s.
- The three factors in Eysenck’s three-factor theory are (1) extraversion/introversion (gregariousness and outgoingness versus introspection), (2) neuroticism/emotional stability, and (3) psychoticism/impulse control. Eysenck argued that these traits are determined by heredity.
Student Video Tool Kit for Introductory Psychology: A Happiness Trait? (2:00) This video focuses on the discovery of a gene that is associated with the presence or absence of neuroticism. With a backdrop of smiling and anxious babies, the video provides insight into biological links to personality. Researcher Dean Hamer explains how the long version of the newly identified gene has an effect similar to Prozac, which, as discussed in Chapter 2 (Neuroscience), promotes a positive mood by blocking the reuptake of serotonin. However, Hamer clarifies that although researchers are confident that this gene is involved in the development of a happy baby, it is highly probable that happiness is also influenced by other genes that have not yet been identified.
These five factors appear to be universal and are consistent from about age 30 to late adulthood. In addition, research has found that the five factors have about a 50 percent heritability rate across several cultures, indicating a strong genetic basis for these traits. The factors are measured using an assessment instrument called the NEO-PI. It might be helpful to refer students to Table 8.4, which provides a concise but complete summary of the major theoretical approaches to personality.
Homework Assignment/Lecture Enhancer Marianne Miserandino (2007) presented an assignment that can be used in or out of class to either introduce or review the five-factor model of personality. Specifically, she recommended using the obituary of Johnny Carson (http://timvp.com/obit_johnnycarson.html) to answer the following questions:
- What can we say about Johnny Carson’s disposition? Was he neurotic or emotionally stable? Extraverted or introverted? Open or conventional? Agreeable or disagreeable? Conscientious or aimless?
- In other words, based on the evidence presented in the article, where would a personality psychologist place Carson on each of the five dimensions of the five-factor model? On which dimensions would he be particularly high or low?
- What does the life of Johnny Carson illustrate about the stability and change of human personality? What stayed the same and what changed about him over the course of his life? Although Carson’s obituary is indeed rich with descriptors, you might consider, depending on the age of your students, using the obituary of a celebrity who is better known to them. For instance, we used Heath Ledger’s obituary and found it to greatly facilitate discussion of the five-factor model. Furthermore, you could, as suggested in another assignment idea at the end of this chapter of the Instructor’s Resource Manual, use this activity to discuss the other theories of personality presented earlier in Chapter
Source: Miserandino, M. (2007). Heeeere’s Johnny: A case study in the five-factor model of personality. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 37 – 39. Portions reprinted with permission from Taylor and Francis.
B. Personality Assessment Personality tests are used primarily to aid in diagnosing people with problems, for counseling, and for making personnel decisions.
- A personality inventory is designed to measure multiple traits associated with disorders or with normal functioning. Test takers indicate whether a series of questions or statements applies to them; the test administrator assumes that people can and will provide accurate self-reports. As a means to apply the notion of personality inventories, we suggest using any or all of the three following PowerPoint-based demonstrations, all of which focus on individual differences in stress.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used personality test in the world, and it has been translated into more than 100 languages. It uses a ―True/False/Cannot Say‖ format for 567 simple statements (e.g., ―I like to cook‖). The MMPI was originally developed to be a measure of abnormal personality on 10 clinical scales such as depression and schizophrenia. Items were developed and tested to differentiate between groups of people—for example, a representative sample of people suffering a specific disorder and a sample of normal people—on certain dimensions; the two groups generally responded to an item in opposite ways. The MMPI contains three validity scales, which attempt to detect fake profiles, test takers who are trying to cover up problems, and test takers who are careless in their responses. Its method of test construction leads to good predictive validity for its clinical scales and its objective scoring procedure leads to reliability in interpretation.
Class Activity/Assignment: Psychometrics For teachers interested in emphasizing psychometrics in this chapter (or in the intelligence section of Chapter 6), there is a brief assignment at the end of Chapter 6 of these Instructor’s Resources to help students learn psychometrics. It can be used either as a traditional homework assignment or as an in-class activity and the basis for discussion.
- Projective tests contain a series of ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots, to which test takers respond by describing their perceptions of the stimuli. a. The Rorschach Inkblot Test contains 10 symmetric inkblots printed on cards. The examiner goes through the cards and asks test takers to describe inkblots and clarify their responses by identifying the various parts of the inkblots that led to the response. The test assumes that the test takers’ responses are projections of their personal conflicts and personality dynamics. The test is widely used but its reliability and validity have not been demonstrated. b. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 31 cards, 30 with black-and- white pictures of ambiguous settings. One card is blank. In a typical testing session, only about 10 of the pictures are used. Test takers make up a story for each card they look at (what happened before, what is happening now, what the people are feeling and thinking, and how things will turn out). The test administrator looks for recurring themes in the responses. The reliability and validity of this test have not yet been demonstrated.
Psychology: The Human Experience Teaching Modules Module 28 (3:59) provides an opportunity to present a ―real world‖ application of the information about traits, personality assessment, and personality inventories in the text. After defining what is meant by ―traits,‖ this module presents a case in which a marine goes into career counseling after 22 years of service. At first the transition seems extreme, but information is presented on the similarities between the two careers and how a personality inventory of tests revealed the similarities. For teachers interested in extending information presented in the text, this module can be used in conjunction with giving students a career assessment test. However, such tests do involve copyright permission expense. If your school has a career services office, you could ask the office’s staff to administer the test to your class. Or, perhaps a career services person would speak with the class about how tests are used in the workplace.
Trait perspective — Describe:
- Where character ―fits‖ on each of Eysenck’s dimensions of extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-emotional stability, and psychoticism-impulse control
- Where character ―fits‖ on EACH of the Big Five dimensions other than extraversion and neuroticism (openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness)
- What you would consider to be the character’s most noticeable positive and negative traits
- To what extent the character’s traits are consistent across situations
