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The Pallavas, the Pandayas
UNIT 6 THE KADAMBAS, THE CHALUKYAS and the Kalachuris
OF BADAMI, THE CHOLAS AND THE
HOYASALAS*
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Kadambas
6.3 The Chalukyas of Badami
6.4 The Cholas
6.5 The Hoyasalas
6.6 Summary
6.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
6.8 Suggested Readings
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will learn about the:
major kingdoms and their territorial expansion and political processes in the peninsular India from 6 th^ to 12 th^ centuries CE; nature of monarchical polities of the Kadambas, Chalukyas, Cholas and the Hoyasalas; and administrative and institutional structures of the Kadambas, Chalukyas, Cholas and the Hoyasalas.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit traces the political developments in the Deccan and the Deep South during the 9 th-13th^ centuries CE. After the weakening of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan and the Deep South, new political formations emerged. Later Kadambas who were the feudatories of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, taking advantage of the waning power, established their independent kingdoms at Gopakapattana (Goa) and Banavasi (Hangal). The Cholas (medieval Cholas) re-emerged as a powerful force, almost dominating the region for four centuries. At the same time, there was a subtle decline of the Pallavas and the Pandayas in the region, giving way to the emergence of the Chalukyas of Badami. Hoysalas also took advantage of the situation and emerged prominent and even overran the entire Chera territories and became Keralasvamis.
6.2 THE KADAMBAS
The Kadambas initially emerged prominent around Talagunda (modern Shimoga district) in the north-western Karnataka around 345 CE. The centre of their political activities was Banavasi region, that is why they are also commonly
*This Unit has been adopted from MHI-04, Units 6 and 15. However, Sections 6.2 and 6.5 are freshly written.
History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
known as Kadambas of Banavasi. They were absorbed into Chalukyan polity around 6th^ century CE and became feudatories of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. They once again emerged into prominence in the second half of the 10 th^ century CE. Here we are not concerned with early Kadambas, instead the focus of our discussion will be on medieval Kadambas who were prominent in the region during 10 th-13th^ centuries CE. In the 11 th^ century there emerged two prominent groups claiming Banavasi Kadamba lineage:
- Kadambas of Hangal (in Dharwar district) and
- the Kadambas of Goa (Dharwar, Karwar and Belgaum districts).
Both claimed the title Banavasipuravaradhisvara , suggestive of their claims over the capital Banavasi. The Kadambas of Goa governed from Chandrapura and Gopakapattana; while Kadambas of Hangal retained their base at Banavasi.
The Kadambas of Hangal ruled around mid-9 th^ century to early 13 th^ century with their capital at Banavasi. The Kadambas of Gopakapattana (modern Goa) were prominent during 11 th^ century to mid-13 th^ century. They ruled over north-western part of Goa, Belgaum (Patasige 1200), Dharwar and parts of northern Kanara (Konkana 900, present Ratnagiri) districts of modern Karnataka. The founder of the Kadambas of Goa was Sheshtha-I. However, the proper history of the Kadambas of Goa begins with Guvaladeva-I, Sheshtha I’s son. To him goes the credit of bringing Lamka (south Goa) permanently under his jurisdiction. They finally lost to the Chalukyas of Badami.
King and His Officials Though king was all powerful, an important feature of medieval Karnataka was the decentralised polities where the king delegated powers to local chiefs/ feudatories who ran almost parallel governments, maintained their own administrative set-up and officers. There was a tradition of appointing yuvaraja (crown prince, heir-apparent). Jayakesi-I assumed the title of:
Konkanadhisa , Konkana Chakravarti (Lord of Konkana) and Paschim-Samudradhisvara (Lord of the western ocean).
Guvala-II had his own mantri-parishad. In an inscription of 1054 CE Viravarmadeva is described as Mahamandaleshvara. Shashthideva performed Tulapurusa and Ashvamedha sacrifices and paid visit to Somnath temple.
We also hear specific functionaries of the court officials like: Manevargade (of the household), Tantrapala (councillors), Pradhana (head), and Tambula Parupatyegara (keeper of the betel-plate).
Similarly, there was also the presence of mahamattra , rajjuka and lekhaka.
Regions were divided into visayas (districts) administered by maneyas. The lowest unit was village ( grama ) governed by grama mukhya , Urodeya or Gavunda. They maintained their own army and performed judicial functions. Mahajanas were important members of the assemblies.
History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
The Pallava king Narasimha I (630-68 CE), son and successor of Mahendra I, proved an equal match to the Chalukyan king and after a series of battles he took his forces into the Chalukyan territory and even entered into Badami where an inscription of his victory was inscribed on a rock.
The succeeding decades saw more hostilities between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas but with no decisive changes on either side. Then followed a lull in war activities for about three decades. At this time the Chalukyan king was Vijayaditya (696-733 CE) and his Pallava contemporary was Rajasimha (691-729 CE). The Chalukyan rule in Badami was replaced by the Rashtrakutas in about 750 CE when Rashtrakuta feudatory Dantidurga gave a final blow and defeated the Chalukyan king Kirtivarman II.
The Chalukyan Polity The Deccan kingdoms of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas were polities based on the Brahmanical socio-political order and institutions like the Brahmadeya and the temple, but remained a loosely knit Samanta type of feudatory states where crisis was built into the very nature of the feudatory system, with ranking among the chiefships and an authority/power structure in which the scale could easily be tilted by one or the other chiefship with military capability. Thus, there was hardly any scope for a centralised administration to develop, though there was a centralised taxation system and a hierarchically organised bureaucracy. There was no proper standing army except the royal troops at the capital and the smaller groups of fighters in the neighbouring regions held under the control of members of the royal family, some of whom were placed at strategic points in the transit zones and buffer zones held by feudatories or smaller powers owing allegiance to the main dynasty, zones leading to more powerful neighbours in the Tamil and Andhra regions.
Kingship High sounding titles were used by the rulers to express their very uncertain power. The titles of Chalukyan kings were as follows:
Satyasraya , Sri-Prithvi-Vallabha , Maharaja , Parmeshvara and Maharajadhiraja.
It was not a centralized kingdom. We do not find reference to council of ministers but it seems that the royal family was placed in charge of official positions. Later, the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom and other kingdoms developed due to this policy. They emerged as offshoots of the original Chalukyas of Badami. Inscriptions give us information about the administrative system. Rajasravitam were the royal orders. The Vijnaptis (petitioners) and writers of the king’s orders related to grants on stone or copper plates were important administrative personnel. They held the position of Mahasandhivigrahika (officer-in-charge of peace and war). The divisions mentioned in the epigraphical records are: Rashtra , Vishaya and
The Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Cholas and the Hoysalas
Nadu.
The copper-plate grants bestowed by the Chalukya kings refer to Vishyapatis, Samantas, Gramabhogikas, Maharattaras etc. Thus, the administrative system was not centralised. However, Vishayapatis were royal personnel. Village was the smallest part of the administrative system. The Gamunda was the royal representative at the village level. He was the connecting link between king and village people. The Karanas were the village accountants. Mahajans constituted the village elders. The Lakslunesvar inscription gives us details regarding the links between the royal machinery and local administration. An Achara vyasthe (charter of rights and duties) was bestowed upon the Mahajans, Nagaras (commercial interests) and 18 Prakritis (classes). It refers to royal personnel, Mahajans, Desadhipatis (officers who collected taxes), Shrenis (guild) of oil mongers etc. Various taxes are mentioned in the inscription which were to be paid to the king’s officials for great festivals, salt, tribute and gold. The Hyderabad grant of Pulkesin II refers to the village being granted together with the Nidhi (treasure), Upanidhi , Klipta and Uparikara (dues). Members of the royal family and trade associations also made gifts to the temples in kind (millet, betel leaves) [MHI-04, Unit 15, p. 22].
Administration
The officers with impressive designations like Mahasandhivigrahika, Mahadandanayaka and so on were appointed from among the kinsmen of the royal families and even from among the lesser chiefs and feudatories. Government at the local level can be located in regions called the Vishaya , Rashtra and Desha , with their respective heads called Vishayapati , Deshadhikari , etc. while the Grama (village) was run by the mahajanas – the big men of the village – controlling land, production and redistribution and also local administration. In most cases these divisions were not created by the central authority but were those spontaneously evolved regions which were recognized as such by the ruling powers, the centre of power shifting according to the change in the dynasties which acquired a hegemonic control over certain core regions and territories. Hence, these polities may be best understood as loosely knit chiefships under a more powerful dynastic rule/control, with a monarchy supported by the Brahmanical order and institutional means. It was a scale of formations which had the potential of tilting in favour of the mightier among the ruling powers. 1
Source: MHI-04, Political Structures in India , Units 6 and 15.
Check Your Progress 1
- Write a note on the Kadambas. ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................
1 The entire section on the Chalukyas of Badami is adopted from MHI-04, Political Structures in India , Unit 6.5, pp. 24-26, 29-30 and Unit 15.6, p. 22.
The Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Cholas and the Hoysalas
with information about historical personages. It appears that these served the purpose of legitimization of the rule of the Cholas. The prashastis of the Cholas were based on the Itihaasa-Purana tradition. The dominance of the Sanskritic and the Brahmanical traditions is well attested. The Cholas also ascribe to the legacy of the Sangam period. The genealogies of the Cholas attribute eminent and prestigious lineage to the king to legitimize his position as king. The period from the eighth year of Rajaraja onwards is marked by absence of genealogical record in the Tamil Meykkirttis. These compositions narrate the military exploits of the kings, are inscribed on stone and address the Tamil landed magnates. The Cholas ascribe Kshatriya origin to themselves as is attested by the title Kshatriyasikhamani of the king Rajaraja. The Yarman suffix (Sanskritic) added to the names of the kings was also a part of the process of claiming kshatriya status e.g. Adityavarman (871-906 CE) and Parantaka Varman (707-755 CE). The practice of assuming names during coronation also existed under the Cholas e.g. Prakesarivarman, Rajakesarivarman and Arumolivarman (Tamil name with a Sanskrit suffix). The charters of the Cholas consist of the prashastis and genealogies in Sanskrit and the details regarding the grant in Tamil. Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara ceremonies were conducted by the Chola kings. The anointment ceremony was also a means to claim Kshatriya position. A grant of Vira Chola points out that the king was advised by a Brahmana moral preacher ( dharmopadeshta ) that bestowment of land to Brahmanas would lead his forefathers to heaven. However, actual motive for making the grants was redistribution of resources in the form of land, gold, cattle etc. The gifts were bestowed for meritorious service provided by the Brahmanas and also to seek legitimacy from them in political sphere. We have proper records of land-grants but the grants of gold, cattle etc. were merely stated in prashastis. Through the land- grants the kings tried to convert unsettled areas into agrarian settlements. These grants did not simply serve a charitable purpose. Rajaraja is regarded as Ulakalanda Perumel (the great one who measured the earth like Trivikrama) and as Shiva who established control over the land of Bhargava Rama.
Check Your Progress 2
- Discuss briefly Chola territorial expansion. ...................................................................................................................
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- Trace the characteristic features of Chola kingship on the basis of prashastis. ...................................................................................................................
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History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
Local Administration: Ur and Nadu The Chola copper plate evidence refers to the following while executing the land-grant:
- Nattar
- Brahmadeyakkilavar
- a) Devadana b) Palliccanda c) Kanimurruttu d) Vettapperu-Urkalilar
- Nagarattar
Nattars were the representatives of Nadu (locality). The Brahmadeyakkilavars were the Brahmana donees of Brahmadeya (lands given to the Brahmanas ). Nagarattars comprised of the trading community and belonged to the nagaram (settlement of a group of traders). Devadana , Palliccanda , Kavimurruttu and Vettaperu have been identified as tax-free villages. Y. Subbarayalu has pointed out that nattars were analogous to the Vellanvagai Urars (peasant villages) since a number of Urs constituted a Nadu. Subbarayalu considers the village ( Ur ) as a small component (fractional) of the Nadu. As a constituent of administrative structure the Nadu was important but it incorporated and represented the Urs ( vellanvagai villages). Thus, in the territorial sphere Nadu comprised of Vellanvagai villages. Nattars were the important members (land holders) of the Nadu (locality). There are very few inscriptions related to the vellanvagai villages. It seems that the Ur being the common populace represented the section which was not literate. However, the inscriptional evidence related to Urs which is found in the temples is attributed to literate groups.
N. Karashima has analysed the two Tanjavur inscriptions of Rajaraja I and Gangaikkondacolapuram inscription of Vivarajendra. According to him, the vellanvagai villages comprised of agricultural lands, lands used by pastoralists, irrigation devices, funeral place, dwelling place etc. The dwelling area comprised of:
l) habitation sites of landholders/cultivators (ur-nattam/ur-irukkai) ,
- those of the artisans (kammanacceri) ,
- those of agricultural labour (paraicceri).
Karashima is of the opinion that in the Vellanvagai villages differentiation is not noticed. Subbarayalu, however, refutes this argument and suggests the existence of a hierarchical structure in these villages comprising of:
cultivators (kaniyudaiyar) , tenant cultivators (ulukudi) , artisans and the agricultural labourers.
The cultivators were generally referred to as vellals. The functions of the Ur included: supervision of village lands viz. activities related to sale, purchase and gift. An important prerequisite for becoming a member of the Ur was to be a
History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
with land-grants address the Nattar and the execution of the grant made by the king was entrusted to them (deciding the limits of the lands granted by the establishment of superior rights of new grantees etc.) Nuttar was subservient to the will of the ruler. Nattar also supervised irrigation works. They bestowed land on temples. They also served as stockists of donation made to temples. They also supervised the grants made by individuals and exempted the lands donated from tax and, in return, took a certain sum of money as a deposit. Nadu also bestowed land on temples which was tax-free (nattiraiyili). The tax payments exempted on lands donated to the temple were now the responsibility of Nadu towards the state. Nadu seems to have levied a cess for meeting these expenses. These levies or imposts were:
Nadatci , Nattu viniyogan , or Nattu-vyavasthai.
The temple lands were sold and leased out, a process in which the nattar played an important role. Nadu seems to have been engaged in tax collection and assessment. Sometimes, the Nattar performed the revenue collection task on behalf of the state and sometimes king’s personnel (komarravar) were responsible for this work. Mudaligal and Dandanayakam were functionaries deputed in nadu and as royal officials they were entrusted with administrative responsibility. Thus, the land holders in a locality were absorbed into the state system by the Cholas. These constituted the local landed magnates and worked on behalf of the king who exercised authority over them.
Nadu was the smallest unit for revenue administration. Nattup-puravu , Nattu- vari (land revenue) and Nattukkanakku : all refer to revenue of Nadu. Nattuk- kanakku was the personnel responsible for revenue administration of Nadu. The collection and fixation of the revenue of a village was carried out within the context of Nadu where the village was located. When Ur exempted taxes this got reflected in Nadu accounts.
The king’s decision to transfer the funds of temple for a specific purpose in the temple was reflected in:
the Variyilarkanakku (revenue register of royal authority) and the Nattuk-kanakku (revenue register of nadu ).
This testifies to the relevance of Nadu as an important part of administrative system of the Cholas in spite of its locally independent character. Nadu-vagai- ceyvar , Nadu-kurk-ceyvar , Nadu-kankani-nayagam and Nadu-kankatci were the personnel who represented royal power in Nadu. Nadu Kuru is mentioned in an inscription of Kulottunga I (1116 CE) who managed the functioning of new Devadana. These personnel were given the role of maintaining the accounts of temples in localities. Nadu vagai is mentioned as participating in the assembly of Brahmadeya ( sabha ). In an inscription Nadu-kankani-nayagam is placed below Senapati. These posts of Nadu officers were transferable. Some officers were entrusted with the administrative responsibility in more than one Nadu. Thus, they worked as part of royal administrative machinery.
The Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Cholas and the Hoysalas
Brahmadeya and Nagaram Brahmadeyas constituted the category of Brahmanas who were landholders in the agricultural tracts and who had been endowed with land (tax-free) and had organised themselves into a distinct group. Nagaram comprised of traders who carried out trading and exchange activities in the pockets which had developed into commercial centres on account of the spurt in craft production and other activities carried out by artisans.
When the Cholas emerged as an important ruling power in the middle of 9 th century CE in Thanjavur, there already existed many Brahmadeyas which were densely populated and rich tracts in the Kaveri region. The Karantai plates of Rajendra I refer to 1080 Brahmanas who inhabited Tribhuvanamahadevi Caturvedimangalam. The assembly of these Brahmanas which inhabited agricultural tracts was called Sabha or Mahasabha. Most of the Brahmadeyas or Brahmana settlements were centred round the temple. Through the temple and the ideological focus based on the Puranas and Itihaasas , Bhakti and varnashramadharma the differentiated society and monarchical polity were legitimized. Therefore, the kings endowed lands to Brahmanas and created Brahmadeyas as a means to legitimize their power.
The inscriptions inform us that many of the Brahmadeyas in the Chola period were Taniyur (separate village) in a Nadu. They had a separate administrative system (revenue and justice). Many of the agricultural villages were clubbed together with a Taniyur. Sometimes a Taniyur was placed subordinate to a temple. Here the Mulparusai was the body which looked after the work of administration.
The inscriptions give the important prerequisites like age, landholding, knowledge, good behaviour for membership to an executive committee of Sabha. The Karantai plates (1080 Brahmanas ) refer to Brahmadeyas but do not inform us how the Sabha and other committees were formed. They were not established by royal authority. Their origin may be attributed to Dharamashastric norms. The Sabha and its committees supervised the temple lands, cattle and other resources. They assigned lands to tenants and levied rent. They kept a record of revenue collected and expenses incurred. They supervised the temple functionaries from priest to cleaner and organised the daily services of temples. Sabha acted as a group and the decisions taken were for the benefit of the organisation and not individuals.
The Brahmadeya settlements where the temple played a pivotal role lost importance in the later phase of the Chola period. After mid-11 th^ century CE we find fewer Brahmadeya tracts and more temples were constructed and the older ones were improved upon. Sometimes, the Mahasabha , unable to pay the amount taken from a temple due to shortage of funds, was forced to fall back upon its income from the neighbouring village.
Nagaram settlement was a tract where traders and others (including artisans) lived. “An inscription of 1036 CE from Chidambaram distinguishes between non- brahmana inhabitants of superior status (kudiga) and those of inferior status (kil kalanai). Kudiga included two merchant groups: Sankarappadiyar (lower group) and Vyaparin (higher group) plus three other groups - Vellals (cultivators), Saliyar (cloth merchants) and Pattinavar (fishermen). The subordinate workmen ( kil kalanai ) were Taccar (carpenters), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths) and Koliyar (weavers)” (Stein, 1980).
The Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Cholas and the Hoysalas
to writing (eluttu) and compared (oppu) and then entered (pugunda). Vidaiyil adigari got the order listed in the record. The document was called Tittu and the charity deed, aravolai.
Justice was carried out by the village assemblies through the committees comprising of Nyayattar. The central court of justice was the Dharmasana which conducted its affairs through Dharamasana bhattas ( Brahmanas proficient in law). It appears that civil and criminal offences were not dealt separately. The penalty for crime committed by a person affecting the king or ruling dynasty was decided by the king himself. Several methods of punishment prevailed viz. imposition of fines, capital punishment etc.
Adhikaris were the king’s officers. They possessed the titles Udaiyan , Kilan/ Kilavan , Velan , Muvendavelan , Brahma , Pallavaraiyan , Vilupparaiyan and other chiefly nomenclature. Sometimes, more than one nomenclature was adopted. At times the name of the Chola ruler or his epithet was used as a prefix by the Adhikaris. Naduvirukkai were mostly Brahmana (held titles like Bhatta , Barhmadhirajan) officers and acted as a link between the royal authority and the bureaucracy and they are always referred to in connection with the adhikaris.
Personnel in charge of temples were Srikaryam but they did not look after the ritual related aspects like worship etc. In some cases we have the evidence of Adhikaris holding the Srikaryam office. Generally, they had a distinctive position in the administrative system. The titles held by them were Kilan/Kilavan , Velan , Muvendvelan , Brahma , Bhatta , Kon , Pallavaraiyan , Vilupparaiyan , Nadu title, King’s title_. Senapati_ was in charge of military affairs. They bore the king’s title/name and other titles such as Udaiyan , Brahma , Araiyan , Kilans. The office of Dandanayakam was probably akin to the Senapati (military office). The title mentioned for this office is Pallavaaraiyans. The titles held by Senapatis were:
Udaiyan, Brahma, Araiyan etc.
The office of Tiru-mandria olai nayakam was an important office associated with preparation of land-grant documents. The titles of these officers were Muvendavelan , Brahma etc.
Officers deputed at Nadu who discharged their duties at the behest of the king were Nadu Vagai who were revenue assessment officers. Kottam-vagai was deputed in Tondaimandalam area and performed the same function as Nadu vagai. Nadukankaninayakam had control over more than one Nadu and had a higher position than Nadu vagai. The titles which occur with the office of Nadu vagai were: Araiyan and Udaiyan. Muvendavelan was borne by Nadu kuru (officer of nadu ) who was an officer of the rank of Adhikari.
Rajaraja I (1001 CE) adopted an elaborate land revenue fixation and assessment mechanism and thus, Valanadus were created and this practice was also adopted by other rulers. The land revenue department was called Puravuvari tinaikkalam. This department was an administrative division of the king’s government and had the following personnel:
Puravu vari ,
History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
Vari pottagan , Mugavetti , Vari pottaga , Kanakku , Variyi/idu , Pattolai etc.
In the time of Rajendra II the administrative personnel had more elaborate designations: Puravu-vari-tinaikkala-kanakkar etc. The period of Kulottunga I witnessed few officers:
Puravu-vari-Srikarana , Nayagam and Mugavetti.
Later, the term Variyilar refers to personnel of revenue department as a general terminology. These officers had the epithets: Udaiyan , Muvendavelan etc.
The titles held by the king’s personnel such as Udaiyan , Kilan and Kilavan refer to possession. Other titles were Velan and Muvendavelan. The latter is a typical Chola title and occurs from the time of Parantaka. These titles suggest that those who bore them were land-holders or associated with land. The title Muvendavelan was bestowed by the Chola King and K. Veluthat points out: “...the strong association of those who bore this high title with offices of some importance is ... borne in mind, demonstrating that the major Vellal landed magnates were enlisted in the service of the king by which process they became an integral part of the state system.” It appears that the title used by chiefs and their families viz. Araiyan was used by other eminent people as well. In the period of Rajaraja I the chiefly rule suffered a setback but the number of Araiyan title holders was on the rise. This title was more prestigious than Muvendavelan. It is conjectured that the chiefs were subdued to the position of landed magnates or cultivators from the period of Rajaraja and his successors although they still held the title.
The cattle herders (manradi) supervised the grants for lighting lamps in the temples. Merchants held the titles of Cetti , Mayilatti and Palan. They even occupied the important offices like Senapati and accountant. Peruntaccan and Perunkollan were titles used by artisan category but at the most their important positions were confined to royal palace and the temple connected with it.
We do not get clear evidence of a council of ministers but there existed officers like:
Purohita (dharmopadeshta) , Rajagurus , Tirumandira olai , Adhikari , Vayilketpar (officer who noted the king’s directives) etc.
M. G. S. Narayanan points out that Udan kuttams were like king’s companions of honour. They might have had a head because we have mention of Adhikari of
History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
It appears that the chiefs were assigned land and collected dues from it in return for padi kaval (protection of territory). In the post-Kulottunga period there is reference to Nilamaittittu: diplomatic agreement between two or more chiefs. These chiefs also had their soldiers and retainers. Their services were utilized by the Chola kings. 2
Check Your Progress 3
- Discuss the role and functions of ur and nadu. ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................
- Define Brahmadeya settlements. ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................
- What were the nagarams? ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................
- Discuss briefly the Chola administrative set-up. ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................
6.5 THE HOYASALAS
The Hoyasalas of Dwarsmudra, as they are commonly known in history, emerged in the Kannadiga region and occupied prominence during 11 th-14th^ centuries in South India with Belur as the centre of the activities (later, the capital shifted to Halebidu). At that time the western Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Cholas along with the Pandayas, Kakatiyas (in the east), Kalachuris, Yadavas of Devgiri (northern Karnataka) were prominent in the region. The weakened and waning
(^2) The entire section on the Cholas is adopted from MHI-04, Political Structures in India , Unit 15.5, pp. 14-21.
The Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Cholas and the Hoysalas
political authority of the Cholas and Pandyas eased the road to supremacy of the Hoyasalas. The founder of the dynasty was Nripa Kama II who was the feudatory of Western Gangas. Vinayaditya subdued a number of Malnad (Karnataka) chiefs (Kongalvas, Chengalvas, Sandharas, of Humcha, Shimoga) as well as Kadambas of Bayal-nadu (Wynad). Ballal I’s inscription also confirms that Bayal- nadu was part of his kingdom. However, the real founder of the dynasty was Vishnuvardhana. Ariskere inscription (1197 CE) has eulogized him as “a devouring epidemic to Chera”. Channarayapatna record (1190 CE) acclaims him as the one “who broke down the bones of Chera-Kerala” (Dhiraj, 2016: 638-639). He overpowered Ananale (petty kingdom in the Western Ghats), Elumale (modern Ezhimala near Kannur - the centre of Mushaka power) and Bayal-nadu (Wynad). Belur record of 1185 CE identifies the boundaries of his kingdom: “Kongu on its south, Kanchi on the east, rivers Krishna and Venna on the north, and the Arabian Sea on the West” (Dhiraj , 2016: 639). Inscriptional evidence confirms that the Cholas and Pandya power completely got subjugated and were subordinated. The last Perumal of Mahodayapuram Rama Kulasekhara ( c. 1089-1122 CE) had shifted his base from Mahodayapuram to Kurakeni Kolam probably under Hoyasala pressure. The boundaries of Hoysala kingdom further extended as far as Vikramesvaram (Ramesvaram) under Narasimha I, the son and successor of Vishnuvardhana. Besides, Kongu (Coimbatore), Bayal- nadu touching the Western Ghats also formed part of his dominion, confirming that Hoysala power completely overran the Kerala region during Narasimha I’s reign. Narasimha II’s reign was marked by the cordial alliance between the Cholas and the Hoyasalas. Narasimha II married his daughter to Chola king Rajaraja II (1216-1256 CE). This alliance saved the Cholas from the constant attacks of the Pandayas. During this period Pandayas appear to have received the support of petty chieftains of Kerala, which was possibly the reason for Hoyasala attacks in the region, as is evident from the Channarayapatne record of 1223 CE. The last powerful king of the Hoyasalas was Somesvara. Arsirkere (1239 CE) and other inscriptions refer him as the “sole protector of Chola-kula” (Dhiraj, 2016: 643-644). By 1229 CE Hoysala boundaries expanded to Kanchi in the east, Belur in the west, river Krishna formed the boundary towards north, while touched Bayal- nadu (Wynad) in the south. Narsimha II granted the entire Chera territories to his son-in-law Chola king Rajaraja Chola III. Arkalgud taluk (Hassan district) inscription of 1252 CE praises Somesvara as “a lion to the deer Kulothunga-Chola and the Kerala chief” (Dhiraj, 2016: 644). During Narasimha III’s reign itself the internal feuds led Somesvara to parcel out his kingdom between Narasimha III (who ruled from Halebidu) and his half-brother Ramnath (who ruled from Kannanur). However, the ultimate signs of disintegration crept up in the time of Ballal III’s reign when Alauddin’s forces under the leadership of Malik Kafur overran the territories in 1310-1311 CE and Ballala III had to shift his base to Tiruvannamalai.
King and His Officials
King was at the helm of affairs of the kingdom. His duty was “to restrain the evil and to protect the good” (Coelho, 1950: 180). He was the supreme authority and the final court of appeal. All matters pertaining to justice were personally administered by the king. In the Hoysala kingdom ‘crowned queens’ occupied special administrative authority. They had separate ministers and stewards even at times lead military campaigns. However, there were ‘uncrowned queens’ as well who hardly enjoyed any powers of such nature. Yuvaraja was the heir- apparent, second in command and often appointed as governor. However, in that
The Kadambas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Cholas and the Hoysalas
A number of taxes were imposed to maintain kings’s troopers and beasts of burdens – war tax ( vira-sese ); separate fodder charges ( khana-nibandha ) and horse contribution ( kudureya-sese ) for king’s horses during the campaigns were taken. Similarly, aneya-sese was imposed for the upkeep of royal elephants. Peasants had to provide paddy for the king’s troops, for that bhatta was levied. Kataka-sese was the contribution for the camp. People had to pay for the supply of cows and bullocks to the king during campaigns ( nallavu-nallettu ). Besides ennumerable one time taxes were imposed at the time of coronation ( patta- baddha ), putrotsaha for the birth of a son. Fines were also one of the regular sources of state’s income. Anyaya was levied for law breaking. Besided these, state taxes, a number of fines and taxes were levied by nad assemblies and nad- heggade and the landlords with royal sanctions. The list is endless: marriage tax ( maduve ), loom tax ( tari irai ), oil-press tax ( gana-dere ), dyer tax ( bannige ), concubine tax ( tottu-dere ), and so on.
Agrahara villages were granted to Brahmanas for their upkeep. We get as many as approximately 104 references of agrahara villages in the Hoyasala inscriptions. However, we do get instances of resistance for converting non- agrahara land- holdings into agraharas. When one of the gauda ’s (rich landlord) land was converted into an agrahara they resisted and it resulted into a fight between the gaudas and the Brahmanas in which Brahmanas successfully defended their claims. For the repairs and upkeep of temples lands were granted. These lands were liberally granted to all religions and sects (Shaiva, Vaishnava, Jainas) irrespective of king’s religious leanings.
Trade, Merchants and the State
Trade and commerce was also an important source of income of the Hoyasala state. Tax on merchandise was usually collected in cash. State was largely dependent on merchants for the supply of arms, elephants, horses and precious and luxury items that developed a greater interdependence between the two. Some wealthy merchants were even granted high-sounding titles like Rajasresthigal (royal merchants) and regarded as pillar of the towns ( pura mula stambha ). Merchants of Karnataka (like Ayyavole Ainnuruvar ) had contacts with Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Kashmira, Singhala and Chakragotta. Merchants were even appointed at various administrative posts within the nadus , towns and at various other administrative posts and even they appeared to take part in the campaigns. The 1145 CE Ballaru inscription records the death of dannayaka Nagrasetti in the battle of Sige. A number of merchants of Gujarat (Lata), Kerala (Maleyala), Tamilnadu (Tigula) and Andhra (Tellugu) settled down in the Hoyasala territory and played an important role as administrators. Kudalaru inscription (1177-78 CE) mentions of Marisetti of Ayyavole, a bangle merchant, who settled down in the Hoyasala country. He was addressed as mahaprabhu (great officer) and his great grandson Perumadideva became the mahapradhan (great minister) and tantrapala (foreign minister) under Ballala II. Inscriptional evidence suggests that these merchants even rose to the position of pattanasvami/ pattanasetti. They were also appointed in the minting of coins. The 1188 CE Banavara inscription records mahavaddavhari as Kammata (mint) Chattisetti. These merchants provided liberal patronage to temples and involved in the construction and repairs of temples. Sravanbelgola inscription of 1117 CE records that the mothers of royal merchants Poysalasetti and Nemisetti built a Jaina temple. Similarly, Dyampura inscription records that in 1188 CE the Bammeshvara temple was built by Bammisetti’s son Vankagavuda. Merchants
History of India from C****. 300 C.E. to 1206
were also actively involved in reclamation of land, digging wells, building tanks and other irrigation projects. Marasanahalli inscription of 1027 CE refers to an excavation of Arapamma tank at Sirivur and a sluice by Sakayya son of Palagesetti. It appears that in comparison to 11 th^ century, merchants’ participation increased in the 12 th-13th^ centuries in building temples in the Hoyasala state, suggestive of the increased participation and administrative power of the merchants (Nayaka, 2003).
Check Your Progress 4
- Discuss in brief the extent of Hoyasala kingdom.
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- Write five lines on the Hoyasala administrative set-up.
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- What role did the merchants play in the Hoyasala state? ...................................................................................................................
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