Download political science nature and significance and more Exams Political Theory in PDF only on Docsity!
Chapter 1
Nature, Scope and Significance of Political Science
Political Science is the systematic study of politics. It means the study, not the practice of politics. Political Science is an ancient field of learning which can be traced to the creative genius of the Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries BC and, most of all, to the Athenians. The Oriental peoples, of course, had speculated on the State and its problems even before the Greeks but they mixed up the study of politics with a great deal of religion, mythology and superstition. It was the Greeks who first made an attempt to develop an independent science of politics and gave it a pure and systematic form. Robert A. Dahl observes: “It was in Athens that Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle raised to the highest level of intellectual endeavour the kinds of questions about politics that concern thoughtful men down to the present day".
Definition and Meaning of Political Science The terms 'politics' and 'political science' have been derived from the Greek word 'polis' which means 'City-State'. For the Greeks 'politics' meant the science of the City-State which was the highest organization of the community through which men strove for moral perfection. Thus Aristotle's celebrated treatise has for its title the name Politics. Scholars of an earlier generation like Jellinek, Holtzendorff and Sidgwick prefer the term politics to political science which is the current terminology. Politics today means ‘applied’ or ‘practical’ politics dealing with day-to-day public affairs and the actual problems of government. Those who take part in the actual conduct and management of the State, government, political parties etc. are known as politicians. On the other hand political science refers to the theoretical aspects of the study of politics – a systematic body of knowledge relating to the phenomena of the State.
Using the term politics in the broadest sense, Sir Frederick Pollock divides it into theoretical politics and practical or applied politics. Under the first he includes: (a) the theory of the State, (b) the theory of government, (c) the theory of legislation, and (d) the theory of State as an artificial person. Under the second head are included: (a) the State (actual forms of government), (b) the government (the working of government, administration etc), laws and legislation, and (c) the State personified (diplomacy, peace, war, and international relations). Thus everything that relates to the basic problems of the State including the principles of political organization and administration falls within the domain of 'theoretical' politics, while that which is concerned with actual working of the government and other political institutions comes under 'practical' or ‘applied’ politics. The majority of writers, however, prefer the term ‘political science’ to ‘theoretical politics’ and the simple term ‘politics’ to ‘applied’ or ‘practical’ politics.
The term political science in its current usage is, however, more comprehensive than the term politics. It includes both theoretical and applied politics. It includes both the theory or State and the actual conduct of affairs of State. From the plethora of definitions of political science, a few representative ones may be cited for an understanding of the nature and central theme of political science. In the words of the French scholar Paul Janet, "Political Science is that part of social science which treats the foundation of the State and the principles of government". The Swiss scholar Bluntschli defined political science as "the science which is concerned with the State, which endeavours to understand and comprehend the state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, its various forms of manifestation, its development." Gilchrist defined it as "a study of State and Government". According to Gettell, political science is "a historical investigation of what the State has been, an analytical study of what the State is and a politico-ethical discussion of what the State should be". Laski observes that "the study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to organized States." J. W. Garner holds "that the phenomena of the state in its varied aspects and relationships constitute the subject of political science. In short, political science begins and ends with the State".
The traditional definitions of political science have kept it confined to state, government and formal political institutions. The State as the most universal and powerful association of human beings and its apparatus, and the government are obviously at the very centre of political science. Concern with 'political order' brought an emphasis on constitutions and laws which have remained an important ingredient of the discipline. Associations and organizations like political parties and pressure groups that help to determine what the organs of government actually do are very much a part and parcel of the study of political science. The traditional view of politics (institutional-legal approach ) was challenged by scholars
like Arthur F. Bentley, Graham Wallas, Walter Lippmann and Charles E. Merrium in the first quarter of the twentieth century who put stress on the psychological and sociological variables of politics. Later scholars like Harold Lasswell, Kaplan, V.O. Key Jr., David Truman, David Easton, Herbert Simon and Gabriel Almond gave a new orientation to Political Science by putting focus on political behaviour as central object of political enquiry. Some of the definitions of the modern scholars highlight this new orientation of political science as an academic discipline. Lasswell and Kaplan regard political science as 'policy science' and defined it ''as an empirical discipline, the study of the shaping and sharing of power." Hillman writes that "politics is the science of who gets what, when and why." David Easton observes that "Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for a society". Values or resources are limited and political science is primarily concerned with the allocation of values to individuals and groups in society. D. E. Butler writes: "Politics is entirely concerned with people, with the way in which they react to decisions. It cannot usefully be studied except in the light of actual behaviour." Thus the behaviouralists projected a broad perspective of political science by shifting the focus from institutions and structures to functions and processes****.
Political Science as a major social science deals with the relationship among men in organized societies and the relationship between man and the State. Despite recent developments in the discipline, the central problem of political science is how best to strike a balance between the authority of the State and the liberty of the individual. In a good State the laws of the State enrich the content of liberty and facilitate the development of human personality. In the modern world there is a high degree of cooperation among the States and political science deals with the forces and processes of such cooperation.
Nature of Politics Political Science is, of course, the study of politics in both its theoretical and practical aspects. But the meaning of politics has never been precise or static. The nature of politics may briefly be discussed from three broad points of view, namely, the liberal, the Marxian and the modern.
Liberal view of Politics Liberal view of politics is a product of Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. It has dominated Western political thinking from the 17 th^ century to the present. In the 19th^ century classical negative liberalism transformed itself into positive, humane liberalism by the challenges of idealism and Marxism. Liberal views on politics are founded on liberal views of man and society. Individual is the centre of the study of politics and society is an aggregation of free, competing individuals. Politics is required to resolve conflicts among competing individuals and maintenance of order, cooperation and harmony. Modern liberals put stress upon the role of politics to serve the common good of the community and to secure to all justice and welfare. Politics again is a process to bring about peaceful and orderly change in society. Politics and State are not the monopoly of any single class. The aim of politics is to establish unity and stability in the face of the diversities and conflicts which characterise societies.
Marxian view of Politics Marx added a new dimension to political and social thought which radically altered the nature and content of politics in the 20 th^ century. It forced individualistic (classical) liberalism to modify itself in the direction of positive welfarism. Marxism put stress upon the innate goodness and sociality of man. It does not find any basic conflict in man's self interest and social interest. Modes of production or economic factors are the most important in determining the political, legal, social, moral, and cultural condition of societies. On the basis of the relations of production class divisions of society take place and politics reflects the struggle between classes. The State comes into being when society is characterised by class conflict. It becomes an instrument of class rule - the economically dominant class rules over and exploits the economically dispossessed. Politics cannot bring to an end the class struggle which reflects the economic disparities in society.
The notion of common good of the community, in which the liberals pin their faith, does not hold good for the Marxist so long as society is class-ridden. The ultimate goal for exploited and oppressed human beings is to achieve a classless society which can be brought about by revolutionary struggle. The working class in capitalist states can emancipate themselves only by taking resort to revolutionary politics. In a classless society there is no need for the State and hence the state ‘withers away’. The Marxian view, as opposed to the liberal view, looks at politics as an instrument of class conflict and not as a conflict-resolving activity or welfare activity. It supports the 'conflict model' as opposed to the 'consensus model' in politics. For the Marxists politics is a reflection of class
a distinction between the two and demarcate the areas of each. Political philosophy is concerned with the theoretical and speculative consideration of the fundamental principles used by political science. J. H. Hollowell observes that political philosophy is not concerned so much with political institutions as with the ideas and aspirations that are embodied in institutions. Eminent political philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Mill, Marx, and Gandhi have given their views on the nature, functions and ends of the state and government. On the basis of their ideas political theory defines political concepts. An important function of political philosophy has been to project values, norms and ideals which political institutions strive to attain.
(3) Political Institutions It covers the study of various political institutions and administrative systems of different countries. Comparative government and comparative politics come under this category. The study of constitutions and political institutions of various countries enables the political scientists to evolve sound and workable principles for the conduct of government.
(4) Political Dynamics It refers to the forces and processes at work in government and politics. These may be social, economic and psychological. They influence and explain political action. It includes the study of political parties, pressure groups, interest groups, lobbies, public opinion – propaganda and political semantics (meaning of words) which influence and control political attitudes and behaviour of individuals and various groups. The shift in focus from institutions to processes and political behaviour in political studies has made political dynamics a key area of political enquiry.
(5) Public Policy
Public policies refer to the numerous policy decisions that the governments take in running the day to and governance. As an important instrument of governance, public policy affects each and every aspect of our life. Therefore, an understanding of the processes by which public policy is actually made and the institutions and actors that play a role in this process is vital for informed citizens and for all of us interested in improving the quality of governance or promoting ‘good governance’. It not only offers useful insights into ‘why’ and ‘how’ policies are formulated and implemented, and ‘succeed’ or ‘fail’, but also offers strategic choices and options necessary for coalition/support building for appropriate and effective policy formulation and implementation. This may ultimately lead to ensuring good governance.
Public policies are usually developed by governmental bodies and officials, though non- governmental actors and agencies may also exert direct or indirect pressure or influence in the policy- making process. They are developed by governmental institutions and officials through the political process (or politics). They are distinct from other kinds of policies because they result form the actions of the legitimate authorities in a political system. The special characteristics of public policies stem from their being formulated by what David Easton (1965) calls the “authorities” in a political system, namely, “elders, paramount chiefs, executives, legislators, judges, administrators, councillors, monarchs, and the like, [who] engage in the daily affairs of a political system.” Moreover, these people are “recognized by most members of the system as having responsibility for these matters, and take actions which are accepted as binding most of the time by most of the members so long as they act within the limits of their roles”
While the institutionalists , who concern themselves with the formal, observable building blocks of government, view public policy as a benign component of identified rules and procedures, the behaviouralists , i.e. the scholars inspired with what people actually do, interpret public policy as the result of interaction of powerful forces, some of which may be far removed from the halls of government.
(6) Public Administration It is a major branch of political science and has emerged as an independent discipline in recent times. Modern government has become a gigantic business enterprise under the impact of socialism and welfarism. The need for sound and efficient public administration and management has assumed enormous significance. Public administration deals with the organization, control and coordination of administrative machinery, personnel administration, financial administration, public relations, administrative law and adjudication. The study of local governments like corporations, municipalities
and panchayati raj institutions is also covered by political science.
(7) International Relations and International Law International relations has assumed great significance as an area of enquiry in political science and there is an increasing tendency to impart it the status of an independent discipline. It is a significant and expanding area of political science. It covers such important subjects as international politics, diplomacy, foreign policies and international organizations like the United Nations. The imperative need for maintaining international peace and security and harmony and cooperation among nations has made the study of international relations very important. International Law or the Law among Nations is a body of general principles and specific rules which regulates the relationship among states and international institutions in times of peace and war. The sovereign states are the subjects of international law enjoying certain rights and performing certain obligations.
(8) Relationship between the State and the Individual The central problem with which political science is concerned, is to establish proper relationship between the State and the individuals. The State guarantees certain rights and freedoms to the individuals and regulates their conduct through laws. The proper adjustment between the authority and power of the state and liberty of the individuals is a difficult problem. Political Science deals with the proper spheres of state action, the limits of political control and the area of individual freedom. Thus political science is both a 'science of liberty' and a 'science of power.'
Political Science is a dynamic discipline and its scope is ever expanding. The social life of man has a direct and indirect bearing on his political life. Political Science enters into any sphere of life which has political implications.
The methodology and focus of political science has undergone a sea change under the impact of the behavioural revolution pioneered by some prominent American political scientists. They have taken an inter-disciplinary approach to the study of political science and borrowed concepts, models and tools of analysis and research from advanced sister social sciences like sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology with a view to making political studies empirical and value-free. This inter-disciplinary approach has resulted in the creation of new areas of enquiry for political science, namely, political sociology, political economy and political anthropology. These hybrid disciplines have further expanded the subject matter of political science.
Political Science: A Science or an Art? There is a great deal of controversy among scholars whether political science is a Science or an Art. Aristotle, the father of political science, called 'politics’ the 'master' or 'supreme' science. Other modern writers like Hobbes, Vico, Hume, Frederick Pollock, John Seeley, Lord Bryce, Sidgwick and Bluntschli consider it as a science. On the other hand, scholars like Mosca, Buckle, Comte and Maitland question its claim as a science since it has failed to act up to the standard of science.
F. W. Maitland writes: "When I see a good set of examination questions headed by the words 'political science' I regret not the question but the title." Buckle remarked: "In the present state of knowledge, politics far from being a science, is one of the most backward of all arts." Denying the claim of 'politics' to be ranked as a science, Comte remarks that (a) there is no consensus of opinion among experts as 'to its methods, principles, and conclusions; (b) lacks continuity of development, and (c) it lacks the elements which constitute a basis of prevision.
The following arguments are advanced against the claim of political science as a science.
There is no agreement among political scientists as to its methods, principles and conclusions. Political principles are not universally accepted and applied. Certain terms are given different meanings and interpretations. Gettell writes: "The terms of political science are often used carelessly in ordinary speech, are given double meanings and are frequently distorted deliberately by being given a favourable or unfavourable connotation for partisan or national purposes".
It is impossible to apply to it rigorous scientific methods of investigation. "Political phenomena are characterized by uncertainty, variableness and a lack of order and continuity." Laboratory experiments are not possible in political science. The political researcher has to deal with human beings whose behaviour and actions can seldom be regulated, while researcher in physical sciences
social leaders to achieve their objectives. Political Science as an academic discipline has instrumental value; it has practical utility. The theoretical knowledge gleaned from scientific political studies is being constantly utilized for the service of mankind.
Significance and Utility of Studying Political Science The study of political science has assumed greater popularity and significance in modem times. Man is a political animal and in his actions is directly or indirectly involved in politics. Politics is a universal activity. Robert A. Dahl rightly observes: "A citizen encounters politics in the government of a country, town, school, church, business firm, trade union, club, political party, civic association and a host of organisations. Politics is one of the unavoidable facts of human existence. Every one is involved in some fashion at sometime in some kind of political system. The study of political science dealing with both theoretical and practical politics has assumed enormous significance and has proved itself socially useful on a number of counts.
Study of political Science imparts knowledge to the individuals with regard to the State, Government and host of other political institutions and processes. Knowledge of the state is of great significance to modem man. Politically enlightened people are capable of playing a useful part in social and political affairs.
Political Science has high educative value for citizens. Its study makes them politically conscious which is an essential condition for the successful working of democracy. It is said that "eternal vigilance is the price of liberty". Study of political science makes a man alert about his place in society by making him aware of his rights and responsibilities. A well informed electorate with a sound knowledge of political science is very vigilant and responsive, and provides the best safeguard against arbitrary rule and despotic tendency of the government. Political Science equips a citizen to understand the complexities of modem government and make his own contribution to the proper working of the political system. The citizen can develop a sense of participation and political efficacy in the affairs of the State if he is intellectually equipped by a study of political-science.
Constructive political progress rests upon a sound and comprehensive knowledge of political science. If governments can be shaped and improved by positive human effort, no study is more valuable than political science. Political Science lays down principles which are to be followed in the conduct of public affairs. Statesmen, politicians, legislators, administrators and diplomats, in a word all practitioners of politics, require a sound knowledge of political science. They make a practical application of the knowledge of political science in their respective fields. "If it is true that where there is practice, there should be theory also, a study of political theory is invaluable to political practice." Political Science is the science of state craft. Politics was taught in Plato's Academy and Aristotle's 'Lyceum' with a view to preparing prospective statesmen and administrators. The same tradition is being followed in modern state to impart knowledge of political science to administrators and diplomats. The understanding of politics and participation in revolutionary politics go a long way in bringing about the much needed change in society.
Political Science is a study of both facts and values. Study of political science tells us about different ideologies and helps us to formulate our own ideas. One of the main objects of the study of political science is to make a proper adjustment between the individual and the State. The liberty of the individual and the authority of the state should be happily balanced. Political Science determines the boundary of freedom and the limits of political control. Again it teaches the lessons of cooperation, toleration and peaceful co-existence. It broadens the outlook of man by freeing him from narrow bounds of parochialism, regionalism and aggressive nationalism. It aims at a just world order characterized by peaceful co-existence and a high degree of understanding and cooperation among states. Outlawing nuclear war, progressive disarmament, strengthening the international machinery for peace and the like are what political science can teach mankind to save itself from a nuclear holocaust.
Apart from these utilitarian considerations, study of political science enriches man's mind and makes a rich contribution to the realm of knowledge. Knowledge of political science expands the intellectual horizon of man and equips him to understand the happenings in the world around him. A. L. Rowse observes: "A people that neglects politics cannot as a people be happy". Political Science, as an expanding and progressive social science, contributes to the enjoyment of a richer and better life. Bernard Shaw stresses the crucial significance of Political Science when he says: "Political Science is the science by which alone civilization can be saved". It enlightens mankind about
constructive political progress and the avoidance of pitfalls and dangers with which modern man is beset.
