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PSC 152 MT 3 EXAM WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 100%
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False consensus effect - ANSWER -when people's own choices, attitudes, or beliefs bias their estimates of those of other people, leading them to view their own reactions as relatively common
pluralistic ignorance - ANSWER -failure on the part of most people to realize that others share their own private views
-when everyone privately rejects or doesn't uphold group norm, yet believes that most other group members accept it
-theres a disconnect between how people privately feel and how they publicly show it
according to Epley and Dunning (2000) study, people sometimes feel "holier than thou" because they overestimate the likelihood that they would act in generous or selfless ways, but hold relatively accurate predictions of others - ANSWER -when you make a judgement that someone else behavior isn't something that you would engage in but maybe in that situation you would do the exact same thing
-when making predictions you overestimate the likelihood that we would act in generous, selfless, & kind ways
-but we make accurate predictions of others
-a consequence of the durability bias
In the Osberg & Shrauger (1986) study what was the percentage of accuracy for the predictions that participants made? - ANSWER -wanted to see how accurate participants were at predicting their own future events
-result was 69% accuracy, pretty low
planning fallacy - ANSWER -when we plan for the future we mispredict our own behavior & its inaccurate
-we continue to make mispredictions even the next time
-were way to optimistic when predicting how long it will take us to accomplish tasks
-occurs more for self-predictions than others-predictions
-bad for completing work on time
-good because it could lead to enhanced motivation and performance
What were the results of the Simonson study where Ps were asked to choose snacks---- in which condition (simultaneous or sequential) did Ps end up exhibiting more variety in their choices? - ANSWER -Simultaneous choice where we pick 3 snacks at the beginning to be consumed one snack per week over the 3 class meetings, had significantly more variety
What is the endowment effect? - ANSWER -attachment to objects that one has become endowed w/ (the object belongs to you)
-people predict they will feel the same before & after endowment, they don't recognize endowment effect & how they're feelings will change
-people mispredict endowment effects & under predict post endowment selling prices
Why does the durability bias occur? - ANSWER -misconstrual- perception of what event is like at time of prediction may be inaccurate, not thinking about the good things when losing job, more free time w/ fan
-inaccurate theories- may think money=happiness & not realize other things make them happy other than money
-insufficient adjustment- we anchor our initial feelings & undercurrent for feeling better over time
-focalism- when predicting, we focus on particular event to the exclusion of other events-- get bad news than get good news, don't realize positive events will happen after or at the same time as bad events
What were the results of the Wilson & Lafleur (1995) study where Ps were asked to
-when the samples available to us are biased, we may be more familiar w/ people like us
-we often rely on availability heuristic, base our estimates on the ease w/ which responses comes to mind
-when motivated to do so, may feel better if I believe that many others share my opinions. This is especially strong if I just experience failure--- failure may be less humiliating if many others have experienced similar failure
-if we don't realize the same questions are open to multiple construals, and that others' construals may differ from our own, we may exaggerate the extent to which others will react like us
How is it possible to have pluralistic ignorance & false consensus at the same time? - ANSWER False consensus = a relative effect which occurs when people holding a given attitude think that this attitude is more prevalent than do people holding the opposite attitude.
Pluralistic ignorance = an absolute effect which occurs when people think their own attitude is less prevalent than it really is
Ex:
Students against alcohol(turn up) (uncomfortable with it) may believe that such discomfort is more widespread than do students who are comfortable with alcoholic. (false consensus)
Students who are uncomfortable with alcohol may underestimate the actual prevalence of discomfort with alcohol (pluralistic ignorance)
So false consensus you are estimating more than the opposing group, but you could still both be too low
How accurate are people at knowing the distribution of important social variables? - ANSWER -we can be remarkably accurate about the distributions of important social variables such as attitudes, traits, and behaviors within large social groups
-we will be especially accurate if we are familiar with the social group in question
Cross-situational consistency - ANSWER -Demonstrate consistent behavior from one situation to different situations that are presumed to tap the same trait
-Some consistency across time & situations is central to the meaning of traits
-if trait-related behavior is not consistent in these ways, the trait becomes meaningless, it doesn't permit any inferences from current behavior to behavior in future situations
Whats Newcomb's position on cross-situational consistency? - ANSWER found cross-situational consistency of behaviors to be remarkably low. The counselor's' overall impressions, at the end of the camp, yielded a considerably higher degree of consistency among conceptually related behaviors than was obtained from their own daily records of these same behaviors... we tend to see more consistency than there really is among trait-related behaviors
Whats Mischel's position on cross-situational consistency? - ANSWER -rather than conceptualizing behavior as determined by broad underlying traits, one should recognize that behavior depends on the specifics of the situation in which it takes place
-challenged the foundations of trait theories of personality
Whats Epstein's position on cross-situational consistency? - ANSWER -even though the correlation between any two behaviors is low, the correlation between two aggregates of behavior can be quite substantial
-ex. performance at any single game is quite unpredictable, it depends not only on the player's ability but also on many chance factors... but over many games, these chance factors cancel each other out, and one is left w/ a pretty good estimate of the player's true ability
fundamental attribution error - ANSWER Underestimate the extent to which behavior is shaped by the constraints of the situation and overestimate the extent to which it is shaped by people's underlying dispositions
What were the design & results of the Quiz Game experiment? - ANSWER Design:
Ps assigned "questioner" or "contestant"
Questioner comes up with 10 challenging but not impossible Q's
Contestant tries to answer
Rated how knowledgeable they were compared to their opposite
-Can be wrong
lexical decision task - ANSWER -Implicit measure, present subjects with a string of letters and ask them to identify if it spells a word or a non-word. Subjects are faster at identifying words that are primed in some way.
likert scale - ANSWER explicit measure, asked how strongly one agrees or disagrees; 1- strongly agree, 2 - moderately agree...5 - strongly disagree to a given statement
semantic differential - ANSWER explicit measure, asks you to rank/rate how you feel about something on a scale system (opposite adjectives): Good...(+2):(+1):(0):(-1):(-2)...Bad, Favorable/Unfavorable, Pleasant/Unpleasant, etc. and average the responses across the scale and you obtain the participant's average attitude toward the object
What are the potential problems w/ explicit attitude measures? - ANSWER -the idea that people can alter their attitudes to be more social desirability; they're consciously aware of their feelings and try to distort it to fit in (this is basically how one acts on a first date. They won't try to be their super weird/natural self b/c they're trying to make the other person see them as normal. You can also see this when ppl go to job interviews - they try to present themselves in a socially desirable way to the employer in hopes of getting employed)
-self-presentation - changing their responses strategically prevents people from getting across how they really feel (this is basically when people don't want others to know how they really feel/matter of reaction - exp: I don't want my customer to know I think they're an ass, or when your boss says a super rude/racist remark towards you, but you act like it doesn't phase you in hopes of not getting fired for speaking up for yourself)
-unaware of true attitude - thinking you like something when you really may not; if it's something one doesn't like about themselves, they don't want to believe it
Evaluative priming task (Bona Fide Pipeline) - ANSWER Assumes that attitudes are activated automatically upon presentation of attitude object; uses the idea of priming; for example, that an activated concept can influence subsequent judgments;
congruence between attitude object prime and target word valence = faster RTs
incongruence between attitude object prime and target word valence = slower RTs
considered to be an "unobtrusive measure"
IAT - ANSWER Assumes that we associate the words "good" and "bad" with objects that we like and do not like which can be measured in a reaction-time task;
-congruent = faster
-incongruent = slower
-FOR MANY (NOT EVERYONE) Hard to do white/bad and black/good = incongruent
-Easier to do white/good and black/bad = congruent
-We associate good and bad with objects we like and don't like
-This is implicit
Ex. Fazio et al. 1996 used variability in automatic activation to measure racial attitudes
-Had subjects rate adjectives following a white or black face = prime
-Congruence of prime and target word = faster
Black face then death = fast response
-Incongruence of prime and target word = slower
Black face then rainbow = slow response
-We infer this person has negative attitude towards black people based on reaction times and the assumption that primes activate attitudes
-Black participants showed less bias on this task = they weren't slowed down for rainbow and were faster for death after black prime **wasn't this suppose to be weren't as slow for rainbow, and weren't as fast for death?
-This task results also predicted other racial judgments
-When people showed implicit bias in bona fide pipeline it predicted in interaction with black person
-People scores on this measure predicted who they thought was responsible for rodney
can, and were told to shoot those holding a gun and not shoot those with a soda can; Ps were paid for accurate performance and had a response window of 850ms and 650ms.
Results: There were more errors with the shorter window of time as racial bias increases; more blacks were falsely killed (when they were holding a soda can instead of a gun) in the 650 ms response window.
What did the results of the Princeton Trilogy demonstrate regarding how stereotype content has changed over time? Why were the studies called the Princeton Trilogy? - ANSWER -Series of studies conducted to examine the content of stereotypes of various ethnic/racial groups & used Princeton students as subjects from 1933-2001.
-Results: a decline in consensus among the tested adjectives in stereotyping
-Called the Princeton Trilogy bc it was originally done at Princeton University and had three (tri) studies 1933, 1951, and 1969
-The content of stereotypes is changing over time.
What did the results of the Madon et al. (2000) study indicate about the emergence of modern stereotypes? - ANSWER -New stereotype of African American
-old stereotypes have faded but new stereotypes exist in their place, which possess a high degree of consensus
-people were less likely to say blacks were lazy but more likely to say blacks were loud
-content of stereotypes shifts but no decline in stereotyping
What did Devine (1989) argue about the activation of stereotypes? Did Devine believe that everyone is aware of the African-American stereotype? Did Devine believe that everyone activates the stereotype? Did Devine believe that every can control the application of the stereotype? - ANSWER -According to Devine, everyone is aware of the black stereotype
-Everyone activates this stereotype
-Low prejudice people, but not high prejudice people are able to control the application of the stereotype
-Low prejudice people control how stereotype is applied
-High prejudice people let the stereotype affect their judgment
-So, Devine argues that everyone, regardless of prejudice level, activates stereotypes automatically
In Devine's (1989) study, how did subjects' ratings of Donald change in response to being `primed with African-American stereotype words? - ANSWER -Subjects rated Donald as more hostile and aggressive when subliminally primed with AA stereotypes.
Did the studies by Lepore and Brown (1997) and Wittenbrink et al. (1997) support or refute the idea that stereotypes are automatically activated by everyone? - ANSWER -Lepore and Brown concluded that only high prejudiced subject rated target as more hostile and aggressive and unreliable.
-Wittenbrink = Levels of prejudice as measured by modern racism scale can moderate automatic activation effects
-Lepore and Brown = only high prejudiced individuals rated target as more hostile and unreliable
-Wittenbrink et al. = found stereotype activation was moderated by modern racism scale
Stereotypes are automatically activated depending on level of prejudice
What were the results of the Fein and Spencer (1997) study on the application of stereotypes? - ANSWER -We apply stereotypes when we are particularly motivated to do so
-We regain self worth by derogating others or comparing ourselves to less competent others
-Condition 1: Had subjects experience blow to self-worth = take test and were told that they failed => this makes people feel bad about themselves
-Condition 2: students were allowed to self-affirm = tell me about things that make you a good person => feel better
-Then subjects were asked to evaluate another person => person was either a Jewish or Italian female
-If you are feeling bad about yourself and presented with a target that has a negative stereotype you will be more likely to use that negative stereotype to boost your self esteem
-No difference in Italian condition because no negative stereotype for Italian woman to use
more positive intergroup attitudes;
-The greater the number of ingroup-outgroup friendships known, the lower the prejudice
-The greater the perceived overlap of selves in the ingroup-outgroup friendship, the lower the prejudice.
Refencing - ANSWER -strong tendency to view disconfirming behavior as being performed by exceptions to the group; if your stereotype says asians are reserved and you meet one that does not fit that stereotype, you view them as an exception to the rule;
Subtyping - ANSWER -considering atypical group members as belonging to a special subgroup of the larger group; subtyping → greater adherence to stereotyping.
How are refencing and subtyping differ? - ANSWER -Referencing relates to a more individual level. "This person is just an exception to the stereotype that Asian people are reserved"
-Subtyping is categorizing a group of people into a "sub" group to keep a stereotype active. An example would be that you notice a lot of Asian people from Japan are not reserved. Rather than altering your stereotype you think "Oh just Asian people from Japan are an exception, the rest are reserved."
What two factors influence the tendency to subtype? - ANSWER 1. whether disconfirming information is concentrated among a few group members or dispersed;
-concentrated → greater tendency to subtype
-dispersed → lesser tendency to subtype
- whether counterstereotypic individuals share another common attribute;
-common attribute → greater tendency to subtype
provides a "good reason" for subtyping
Why does sharing a common attribute tend to lead to greater subtyping? - ANSWER -If
counter stereotypic individuals share another common attribute it is easier to subtype them because they are similar to one another -even when it is a meaningless attribute that is shared
ex. You want your stereotype to be maintained that people from Mars are unintelligent. So, you subtype all the intelligent Martians into a subgroup. This can be done easier if they share something else in common such as golfing. They are already divided from the stereotype associated with Martians allowing for common attributes leading to greater subtyping. Hope that helps!
Are extremely counterstereotypic individuals more or less likely than moderately counterstereotypic individuals to change the stereotype of a group? - ANSWER -Extremely counterstereotypic individuals may be less likely than moderately counterstereotypic individuals to change the stereotype of the group. These people are often dismissed as exceptions and thus don't change our stereotypes of women or African-Americans.
What were the design and results of the study by Yzerbyt, Coull, & Rocher (1999)? The idea that it requires cognitive resources to explain away deviant group members - when there's someone that doesn't fit our stereotype, we use these cognitive resources to explain why they could be that way; when these resources are not available, like when we are distracted, we are more likely to change our stereotypes when confronted with a disconfirming group member. - ANSWER Design: Ps listened to a 2-min interview of Mr. Echard, a computer engineer, that contained 5 pieces of info that disconfirmed the stereotype of the introverted computer engineer; e.g. talks a lot, is not shy, etc.
Conditions:
distraction manipulation - ½ of Ps listened to the video while distracted and other ½ not distracted
target manipulation - ½ were asked to judge the category (computer engineers) and other ½ were asked to judge the target person himself.
Results: When distracted, people were less likely to fit the member into the typical group stereotype due to lack of cognitive resources; they viewed computer engineers as more extroverted when they were distracted and able to think it through or explain away the uncharacteristic characteristics of the individual.
In Steele's research program, when did Black subjects underperform in relation to White subjects? - ANSWER when the test was said to be diagnostic
In the study by Shih et al (1999), in which condition did the Asian-American participants perform the best? Under which condition did they perform the worst? - ANSWER Asian-Americans performed:
-best when their Asian-identity was made salient.
-worst when their gender-identity was made salient.
What were the design and results of the Stone et al. (1999) study? - ANSWER Design: 40 white and 40 black student; they were told that golf putting was either indicative of natural ability or sports intelligence; and they were either primed with their race or not; and of course, there was a control group.
Results: When black Ps were told that the putting task was a test of natural ability, they did best, and worst when told it was for sports intelligence due to the invocation of stereotype threat; and this results are reversed with white Ps.
What is stereotype lift? - ANSWER stereotype inspired social comparison that can lead to better performance
What was the intervention that Cohen et al. (2006) used in their field experiment on stereotype threat? - ANSWER Stereotype threat - questioned if a self-affirmation can buffer the self from stereotype threat, thus leading to better academic performance? At the beginning of the fall term for the half AA and half EA 7th grade students from middle and lower middle class families; students wrote a brief paragraph about why an important value was important to the self (affirmation) vs. someone else (control);
self-affirmation increased performance for low performing and moderately performing students but had no effect on high performing students
What were the early tools used for assessing physical responses to cognitive activity? -
ANSWER -psychophysical measures (galvanic skin response - measures sweating), ; problem: measures weren't very specific;
-examining brain-damaged patients helped infer where issues may lie in the brain, but not a very specific measure
What are the "contemporary tools" used for assessing physical responses to cognitive activity? - ANSWER -brain imaging techniques (fMRI), looking at blood flow to different regions of the brain, which is an indicator of brain activity, using patterns of blood flow for inferring areas of brain associated with certain factors;
-recording brain signals (Electroencephalography or EEG), using electrodes on the skull to pick up electrical signal at a very refined level that can also help make inferences about what is happening where in the brain.
What were the effects of Phineas Gage's brain damage? - ANSWER -caused personality changes, his reasoning changed, could carry out normal functioning: memory, breathing, etc., but began to use profanity more, which was not his style, self-control hindered, had little restraint when it came to his desires, etc.
Where is the ventromedial prefrontal cortex located? - ANSWER The VMPFC is located in the frontal lobe.
What processes does the ventromedial prefrontal cortex seem to be implicated in? - ANSWER The VMPFC is implicated in the processing of risk and fear and in decision making.
What are some of the decision-making consequences of lesions to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex? - ANSWER Patients with lesions in this area show severe impairments in personal and social decision-making; tend to opt for choices that yield high immediate gain despite higher future losses; affects the link between fear and risk.
What did the Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio (2000) reveal about the most likely explanation for why VM lesion patients opt for immediate gains despite higher future losses? -
What were the design and results of the Eisenberger et al. (2003) study on social pain? How was activity in the ACC and the RVPFC affected by social exclusion? - ANSWER The idea that the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is believed to act as a neural "alarm system" detecting when an automatic response is inappropriate or in conflict with current goals; pain, the most primitive signal that something is wrong, activates the ACC,
-concerned with is social pain - rejection, an insult, etc.
Design:
Ps played Cyberball game while inside of a scanner; there were either excluded (gets the ball passed to them initially then excluded for the remainder of the game) or included by other virtual players the entire time, and their brain images were recorded.
Results:
Results: - Activity in the ACC, previously linked to the experience of pain distress, was associated with increased distress after social exclusion.
As people were excluded from ball tossing game also showed greater activation in ACC
Activity in RVPFC, previously linked to the regulation of pain distress, was associated with diminished distress after social exclusion.
When RVPFC was activated they experienced less stress
What is EEG? - ANSWER electroencephalography; which is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp that is produced by the firing of neurons within the brain.
What is the odd-ball paradigm? - ANSWER P300 wave - odd-ball paradigm: a paradigm that was used to detect people's attitudes; when our brains are perceiving objects, we tend to automatically categorize them; donut = good, pizza = good, hamburger = gross; the object not liked will create a P300 wave; useful when you don't want to ask someone their attitude directly or when things are happening very quickly.
What were the design and results of the Amodio et al. (2004) study on the role of cognitive control in the expression of prejudice? - ANSWER The question about the
role of cognitive control in the expression of prejudice; specifically, how early in the cognitive stream we detect racial bias?
Design:
weapons ID task with either black or white faces and with gun or tool images, recording brain activity with EEG;
Results:
Our brains register race-based errors very quickly; controlled processes may operate non-consciously and very quickly after errors have been detected.
-black-tool error higher than white tool error = more likely to misidentify a tool as a gun following a black face
What is the ERN? - ANSWER ERN or error-related negativity is a negative voltage deflection that typically peaks within 50 ms following a response; negative numbers are graphed upward; the brain detecting that an error is about to be made.
What did Amodio et al. (2004) conclude from their study? - ANSWER Our brains register race-based errors very quickly; controlled processes may operate non-consciously and very quickly after errors have been detected.
What is embodied cognition? - ANSWER The idea that cognition includes not only abstract and model mental representations but also a modal perceptual content from various sensors; our brains record both cognitive representations of events and our bodily sensations during those events; more simply, the environment is part of the cognitive system.
example: mental rotation or mentally picturing something to answer a question; mentally "walking" around your house when asked how many windows it has.
What does the term "reciprocal action" mean in the context of embodied cognition? - ANSWER the idea that we have cognitive representations and schemas which can affect our bodily sensations and that those sensations can affect our cognitive
