Download PSYC 185 Midterm 2: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development and more Exams Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
PSYC 185 MIDTERM 2 WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
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Sensorimotor stage (0-2) milestones (list) - ANSWER - repeating chance behavior (birth-4month)
- simple intentions actions (4-8months)
- coordinated intentional actions & obj. perm/A-not-B error (8-12 months)
- imitate novel behavior & accurate A-not-B (12-18 months)
- mental representations/make believe play/symbolic understanding (18-24months)
Sensorimotor more experience than Piaget thought in... - ANSWER object permanence as early as 6 months
Sensorimotor milestone: birth-4 month - ANSWER Repeating chance behavior
- As infant tries to repeat chance behavior, it strengthens to new scheme)
Sensorimotor milestone: 4-8 month - ANSWER Simple intentional actions (reaching for obj)
Sensorimotor milestone: 8-12 month - ANSWER - Coordinated intentional actions
- Obj. permanence (around 8 months)
--> Example, A not B task error — able to find obj in first hiding place but once moved still search in first location
Sensorimotor milestone: 12-18 month - ANSWER - Imitate novel behaviors
- Accurate on A task but not B
--> Able to search in several locations for hidden object
Sensorimotor milestone: 18-24 month - ANSWER Mental representations
- Obj permanence
- Imitation - make believe play
- Symbolic understanding
Internal depictions of obj and events and representations of images and concepts
Preoperational (2-7yrs) milestones list - ANSWER 1. Marked by big advances in mental representation
- Make believe play emerges (Later- socio dramatic play)
- Language takes off!
- Dual representation
Limitations of preoperation (2-7yrs) list - ANSWER 1. not capable of operations
- understanding the world is strongly influenced by appearance
- rigid thinking
- egocentrism
- inability to conserce
- lack of hierarchian classification
- fail seriation tasks
dual representation - ANSWER symbols are obj by themselves, as well as symbols (obj has dual purpose)
snoopy test - ANSWER 2.5 year old cannot understand, 3 year old can
how piaget tested for mental representations (sensorimotor stage) - ANSWER - Deferred imitation is evidence of this!
- He said that infants do not have mental representation of objects and experience before 18 months then they should not show evidence of imitating anything. In order to imitate you have to have mental representation. BUT they imitate
how piaget tested for egocentrism (preoperational stage) - ANSWER Tested by piaget three mountain problem: children in preoperational stage cannot select a picture that represents the doll's perspective. Instead, they choose a picture that represents their vantage point
how piaget tested for conservation (preoperational stage) - ANSWER - Moving coins apart or together
- Water in tall vs. short glasses
- BUT naughty teddy study
what is naughty teddy study? what does it in reference to? - ANSWER - conservation
Teddy bear comes in and messes up coins and kid says they're still the same amount because teddy did by accident, but when researcher does it, its intentional and they say different amount
how piaget tested for class inclusion tasks (preoperational stage) - ANSWER Children are shown 16 flowers, 4 of which are blue and 12 of which are red. When asked, "Are there more red flowers or flowers?" the preoperational child responds, "More red flowers," failing to realize that both red and blue flowers are included in the category "flowers."
how piaget tested for seriation tasks (preoperational stage) - ANSWER Ordering straws of different lengths
studies showing violation of expectation paradigm and eyetracking for obj permanence - ANSWER - carrot study
ball study for obj permanence - ANSWER babies would track a ball's path of movement as it disappears and look where the ball is supposed to reappear. As babies get older this behavior becomes more
carrot study for obj permanence - ANSWER babies habituated to short and tall carrot moving behind screen, new screen with window the short carrot moves behind new screen and cant be seen in window since shorter but they present an impossible event of the tall carrot moving behind screen but it does not appear in the window. Babies looked longer at impossible/unexpected event suggesting they have some awareness of object permanence.
train study for obj permanence - ANSWER It can be hypothesized that after being habituated to the first event, the babies anticipate that the train will go through the track after every event. The looking times of the will be longer. The baby will be interested in the idea that the train disappeared and reappeared. According to Piaget, infants cannot tell the difference in the scenarios because they have not developed object permanence yet. The babies looked at the impossible event more, indicating they could tell the difference between scenarios. This shows that they do have a sense of object permanence.
why is violation of expectation paradigm and eyetracking for obj permanence controversial? - ANSWER because researchers are attempting to interpret what an increased looking time means. For example, they may look longer at impossible events because they are confused and trying to figure it out. Question what babies looking time tells us about what they understand
early evidence for deferred imitation - ANSWER Deferred imitation (remember model's past behavior) meaning they Remember something that was done a few days ago and repeat it
- Researchers performed actions with a puppet a day later 6 month old imitated those actions
Deferred vs Inferred Imitation - ANSWER deferred: the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present
--Attention, memory, logical reasoning, language
Imaginary friends
zone of proximal development - ANSWER - Make believe play is a zone of proximal development
- what a child can do with help. Beyond that it is to challenging and frustrating for the child
- a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of others
private speech - ANSWER - Foundation for all higher cognitive processes
- Helps guide behavior
- Gradually becomes more silent -inner speech
- children's self directed speech, which is used for self guidance during difficult task and eventually turns into silent inner speech
scaffolding - ANSWER -focused guidance. You can help a child reach the zone of proximal development through scaffolding. Little reminders to help them think about what they need to do
EXAMPLE:
- Doing a puzzle with a child. They might be overwhelmed with the number of pieces and suggest finding the corners or the sides.
- If they are getting distracted remind them that they need to have looking eyes and listening ears
working memory - ANSWER the number of items a person can briefly hold in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items
working memory capcaity in children vs. adult - ANSWER 2 items in early children (go to your room and grab a book ) to 4-5 items in early adulthood. Goes up with age.
What does working memory showw in terms of intelligence scores/school - ANSWER Predictor of intelligence scores and academic achievement through adolescence. Children with low working memory scores results in persistent difficulties with reading and math. Can be supported through scaffolding
- Socioeconomic status plays a role thus the environment has an influence
how information processing theory expalins piagetian milestones - ANSWER Children show impressive gains in executive function during the preschool years. They gain steadily in inhibition, flexible shifting of attention, and working-memory capacity, which contribute vitally to cognitive and social skills. Older preschoolers also improve in planning, a complex executive function activity.
- info processing is the driving force that underlines the milestones. Like why do children fail conservation tasks then succeed. Children might not have object permanence because their ability to attend is not mature. It is Because different things like memory and attention gets better children can attain different skills. When these develop you see achievement of milestones that piaget proposed.
two arousal states in early infancy - ANSWER 1. Positive arousal - contentment
--> Interest - pleasant stimuli - approach
- Negative arousal - unpleasant stimuli - withdrawal
3 categories for differnetiating emotions - ANSWER 1. primary emotions (birth to 6months)
- Complex emotions (self conscious thought) (1.5 to 2 years)
- Complex emotions (self conscious thought & incorporation of rules and norms ) (2.5-4yr)
primary emotions - ANSWER birth - 6 months
- Contentment - joy
- Interest - surprise
Sadness (basic emotion) - ANSWER less common than anger
- To a disruption in caregiver - infant communication, extended separation
- still face study example
still face study - ANSWER Mom interacts with the baby then the researchers ask the mother not to react at all (a neutral/unresponsive face). The baby tries facial expressions, vocalizations, and body movements to get the parent to respond again. When that does not work they progressively get upset and cry
- Mom smiles & engages with the baby and the baby engages back
- Ask mom not to engage
- Baby realizes and tries to re-engage (point, smile)
- Negatively react (scream, turn away)
fear (basic emotion) milestones - ANSWER 1. 6 to 12 months: first fears
- 8 to 10 months: stranger anxiety
stranger anxiety - ANSWER the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
factors that influence stanger anxiety - ANSWER 1. temperament (some babies are generally more fearful),
- Cultural practices is it a collective caregiving system
- Past experiences with strangers, and the current situation.
- When an unfamiliar adult picks up the infant in a new situation, stranger anxiety is likely.
- If the adult sits still while the baby moves around and a parent is nearby, infants often show positive and curi-ous behavior
- The stranger's style of interaction — expressing warmth, holding out an attractive toy, playing a familiar game, and approaching slowly rather than abruptly — reduces the baby's fear.
Self-Consicous Emotions - ANSWER guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, pride
- Around 1.5 to 2 years
- Involves injury or enhancement to self
- Coincides with the development of self-concept (Self as separate from others)
What is emotional self -regulation - ANSWER refers to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals → requires voluntary, effortful management of emotions
influences of emotional self regulation - ANSWER brain development, temperament, and parenting practices
male vs. female emotional self regulation - ANSWER females expressive; males controlled
how does emotional self regulation develop from infancy through adolescence? - ANSWER - Improves rapidly in early childhood b/c of dynamic system of influences (ie. development of PFC and brain connections & support from caregivers)
- Infants have a limited capacity to regulate emotional stress (easily overwhelmed) and rely on caregivers to reorient attention (rocking, stroked, etc)
- 3 months on have ability to shift attention away from unpleasant events & self-sooth; 6 months improve ability to communicate for help ; End of 1 yr greater reliance on PFC
Role of parenting in emotional regulation - ANSWER 1. Infants with highly involved parents (playing and reading with them; sympathetic to needs/emotions) tend to be better at self-distraction and self-soothing, express more pleasurable emotions, and are more interested in exploration
- When parents who respond impatiently or angrily (or wait to intervene till child is very upset) they are reinforcing the baby's rapid rise to intense distress
-- Parents have harder time soothing child & child has harder time self soothing
-- Girls more emotional, boys told to be tough/suck it up
Emotional expression and display — cultural differences - ANSWER Depending on culture, different emotions are acceptable by gender
Face masks and emotional development - ANSWER - Can hinder ability to interpret adults around them (Learn through mimicry/imitation so taking away ability to imitate facial expressions)
- Have to rely on eyes and eyebrow expressions
- Children with hearing difficulties might suffer dvlpmnt b/c unable to interpret facial expression with sign
connection with face masks vs. still face - ANSWER - Masks did not reflect still face response
- Baby can still see eyebrows/eyes and can interact through tone of voice, talking, and body language
tempermant - ANSWER - Early appearing, relatively stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation
- Tendency toward particular emotional and behavioral responses to a context
personality - ANSWER Temperament + creativity + intelligence + other factors
temperament vs personality - ANSWER temp: used to describe infants
personality: used to describe older children and adults
model for temparment before mary rothbart - ANSWER previous model was NY longitudinal by Thomas & Chess categorized children into easy, difficult, slow to warm up, and average categories (type theory: put in 'buckets')
Mary Rothbart's model of temperament (describe & list dimensions) - ANSWER A trait model, meaning they vary on a continuum for each criteria (emotion, attention, action)
- activity level
- attention span/persistence
- fearful distress
- irritable distress
- positive affect
- effortful control
activity level (rothbart): lvl & description - ANSWER level 1
level of gross motor activity
attention span (rothbart): lvl & description - ANSWER lvl 2
duration of orienting or interest
fearful distress (rothbart): lvl & description - ANSWER lvl 3
(reactivity due to fear): wariness and distress in response to intense or novel stimuli, including time to adjust to new situations
irritable distress (rothbart): lvl & description - ANSWER lvl 4
(reactivity due to frustration): extent of fussing, crying, and distress when desires are frustrated
positive affect (rothbart): lvl & description - ANSWER lvl 5
frequency of expression of happiness and pleasure
self regulation (rothbart): lvl & description - ANSWER lvl 6
goodness of fit parenting - ANSWER Child rearing that is sensitive to temperament
goodness of fit parenting related to temperament - ANSWER Explains how a child's temperament and environment play a role in development; parenting suggests that parenting style should take into account child's temperament
Positive parenting - ANSWER - Warm, supportive, consistent
- Clear expectations and limits
- Foster effortful control
- Verbal guidance/induction, suggestion and strategies for control: telling child why they did was wrongs and giving them ways to cope with emotions
- Acknowledge emotions, negotiate and compromise
how goodness of fit parenting fits paper we read in week 2 about disregulation - ANSWER - differential susceptibility babies responded well to low levels of depression but negative to high levels based on the types of alleles they had
- Genetic predispositions impact how child reacts to environment
What is attachment - ANSWER affectionate tie with special people in our lives
- Experience pleasure and joy when we interact with them
- Comforted by their nearness in times of stress.
basis (components) for attachment - ANSWER - Sense of trust
- Mothers soft caresses, warm smiles, tender words (attach to cuddly things)
- Behaviorism emphasizes feeding as central in dvlpmnt of attachment, but attachment doesn't depend on hunger satisfaction
Factors facilitating initial attachment - ANSWER - Contingent responding
contingent responding - ANSWER Mother smiles and rocks baby → mothers smile and rocking produces larger smile in baby→ baby smiles → babys smile produces more smiling and rocking in mother
BOWLBY's phases of attachment (list & time frame) - ANSWER 1. preattachment (birth-6weeks)
- attachment in the making (6 weeks to 6-8 months)
- clear cut attachment (6-8months until 18 months to 2 yrs)
- formation of reciprocal relationship (2+ years)
Preattachment Phase (Bowlby) - ANSWER birth-6 weeks
- built in signals - crying, eye contact not yet fully attached since they do not mind being left with someone else
** A little controversial, babies show behaviors of being attached!
Attachment in the making phase (Bowlby) - ANSWER (6 weeks to 6-8 months):
- smiles, laughs, babbles more freely with mother. Quiets more quickly with mother. Expectation that mother will respond = trust
Clear cut attachment phase (bowlby) - ANSWER ( 6-8 months until 18 months - 2 years):
- separation anxiety increases between 6-15 months, use caregiver as secure base from which to explore
- Stranger danger, look for caregiver
When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they convey clear pleasure — some expressing joy from a distance, others asking to be held until settling down to return to play — and cry-ing is reduced immediately.
insecure attachment - ANSWER 15% of US kids
These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when he is present. When the parent leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling.
insecure resistant/anxious - ANSWER 10% of US kids
Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior (struggling when held, hitting, and pushing) or with an anxious focus on the parent. Many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily.
insecure disorganized - ANSWER - 15% of US kids
- This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity.
- At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors — for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures.
Factors influencing attachment security - ANSWER - Presence of a consistent care-giver (opportunity for attachment)
- Quality of caregiving (sensitive caregiving: prompt, consistent, appropriate reponses)
- child temperamnet
- family circumstances (Stressors can undermine attachment security)
- parents working models (How do parents perceive their relationship with own parents?; More that the actual relationship, perception of relationship is important)
western vs. non-western cultures approach to sensitive caregiving - ANSWER Western: value independence, sensitive caregivers follow infant cues
Non Western/asian: interdependence, proximal care (keeping baby physically close, dampening emotional expressiveness by anticipating physical need)
parental Internal working model & attachment - ANSWER - Parents who discuss their childhoods with objectivity and balance, regardless of whether their experiences were positive or negative, tend to behave sensitively and have securely attached infants.
- Parents who dismiss the importance of early relationships or describe them in angry, confused ways usually have insecurely attached children and are less warm, sensitive, and encouraging of learning and mastery.
- relationship between parents' internal working models and sensitivity toward their own infants is only modest
internal working model - ANSWER Set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and likelihood of providing support in stress
- Vital part of personality — guide for future relationships
- Revise and expand the models over time
- Continuing quality of parent-child relationship
Attachments with fathers - ANSWER - Fathers' sensitivity toward infants predicts attachment security, but less strongly than mothers'
- formed thru play!!!
- Fathers' sensitive, challenging play with preschoolers is associated with favorable emotional and social adjustment from early childhood to early adulthood
- As long as fathers are also sensitive, this stimulating, startling play style helps babies regulate emotion in intensely arousing situa-tions and may prepare them to venture confidently into active, unpredictable contexts, includ-ing novel physical environments
