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PSYC 435
Abnormal
Psychology
QUESTIONS WITH
CORRECT
ANSWERS LATEST
Unit 1: A. Discuss common topics and issues relevant to Abnormal Psychology.
- drug or alcohol problem, a suicide, an eating disorders, or psychological difficulty, addiction
- problems with depression, schizophrenia, postpartum difficulties, eating disorders, depression
- questions that will enable us to help patients and families w/ mental disorders
- heart of a research-based approach that looks to use scientific inquiry and careful observation to understand abnormal psychology B. Explain why we need to classify mental disorders.
- Because all classifications play a roll on their own but can also be connected. One example could be considered a mental disorder but in a different context could be normal
- To have a common language between clinicians and bc culture shifts over time/these disorders may change or no longer be considered as disorders
- Most sciences rely on classification - provide us with a nomenclature (a naming system) common language and shorthand terms for complex clinical conditions
- Structure - classification systems typically place diagnoses commonalities (panic disorder, specific phobia, and agoraphobia = fear anxiety based)
- Classification facilitates research, which gives us more information and facilitates greater understanding.
- Classify which types of psychological difficulties warrant insurance reimbursement and the extent of such reimbursement. C. Explain the DSM definition of mental disorders.
- DSM: accepted standard for defining various types of mental disorders - descriptions, lists of symptoms to diagnose mental disorders. Provides clinicians with specific diagnostic criteria for each disorder.
- A common language so specific diagnosis means the same thing to everyone.
- descriptive info on the type and number of symptoms needed for each diagnosis helps ensure diagnostic accuracy and consistency (reliability). Help w/treatment D. Identify how culture can influence the definition of Abnormal Psychology.
- Different values amongst cultures differences between what is considered normal or abnormal
- Public etiquette, standards of health and safety, religious or societal differences E. Types of people who help with Therapy - People with mental disorders do seek help, they are often treated by their family physician rather than by a mental health specialist - Psychiatrist may prescribe medications and monitor the patient for side effects.
3. Explain how culture affects what is considered abnormal and describe two different culture-specific disorders.
- Cultural history and background, religious, paradigms, social courtesy and correctness
- Amish people will act differently than what would be normal to a north American culture
- Number 13 being bad luck (Christian) 4 In japan (“four” sounds like “death”)
- Jamaicans are statistically as prejudice towards MI people as western countries 4. Distinguish between incidence and prevalence and identify the most common and prevalent mental disorders.
- Epidemiology: is the study of the distribution of diseases, disorders, or health- related behaviors in a given population.
- Mental Health Epidemiology: is the study of the distribution of mental disorders.
- Point Prevalence: refers to the estimated proportion of actual, active cases of a disorder in each population at a given point in time. (depression coming and going at different 3points of the year)
- 1 - Year Prevalence: figure, we would count everyone who experienced depression at any point in time throughout the entire year (this would be higher than Point P. bc includes more time)
- Lifetime Prevalence: includes the whole lifespan including recovery time
- Incidence: Refers to the number of new cases that occur over a given period (1 year). Someone who was quite well previously but then developed schizophrenia during our 1 - year window would be included in incidence estimate.
- Not always serious 12 - month rates of serious mental illness are estimated to be 5.8 % for adults and 8.0 % among adolescents
- Comorbidity: describes the presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
- ½ of individuals with a disorder rated as serious on a scale of severity (mild, moderate, and serious) had two or more additional disorders.
- depression, which accounts for more than 40 percent of the DALYs 5. Discuss why abnormal psychology research can be conducted in almost any setting.
- there has been an enormous decrease in inpatient beds.
- variety of settings outside the research laboratory, including clinics, hospitals, schools, or prisons. highly unstructured contexts such as naturalistic observations of the homeless on the street. 6. Explain inpatient and outpatient treatment.
- Outpatient Treatment: requires that a patient visit a mental health facility practitioner; however, the patient does not have to be admitted to the hospital or stay there overnight.
- Hospitalization and Inpatient: preferred options for people who need more intensive treatment than can be provided on an outpatient basis. usually admitted to psychiatric units of general hospitals, or private psychiatric hospitals specializing mental disorders. 7. Describe three different approaches used to gather information about mental disorders.
- Acute (short in duration) or Chronic (long in duration) Etiology (or causes) of disorders
- Research Methodology: the scientific processes and procedures we use to conduct research - is constantly evolving.
- Case studies: In-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews) - case studies are excellent way to illustrate clinical material. may provide insight into unusual clinical conditions that are too rare to be studied in a more systematic way.
- Generalizability: to draw conclusions about other cases even when those cases involve people with a seemingly similar abnormality.
- Self-report Data: Subjects complete questionnaires, can sometimes be mis- leading, child might report 20 best friends but only has 1 when observed.
- Observational Approach: collect information in a way that does not involve asking people directly (self-report) Direct Observation: observer watches subject, or take measures (e.g. Heartrates of aggressive children, hormones such as cortisol,) FMRI brain scans another way to measure or transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- Observing behavior, refers to scrutiny of the conduct and manner of specific individuals (e.g. healthy people, people with depression, people with anxiety, people with schizophrenia). 8. Explain why a control (or comparison group) is necessary to adequately test a hypothesis.
depression). (people with specific disorders, people who have had traumatic experiences, people who win lotteries, etc.)
- Correlational research takes things as they are and determines associations among observed phenomena -
- Positive correlation: measures vary together in a direct, corresponding manner e.g. breast augmentation surgery correlated with increased risk of suicide.
- Inverse Correlation: negative correlation, between the variables of interest (e.g. high socioeconomic status and decreased risk of psychopathology)
- Independent/Uncorrelated: given state or level of one variable fails to predict reliably the degree of the other variable, e.g. all who have schizophrenia drink milk?
- Correlation Coefficient: The strength of a correlation - denoted by the symbol r - correlation runs from 0 to 1, number closer to 1 representing a stronger association between two variables - + and – represent the direction (e.g. positive correlation = higher scores on one variable are associated with higher scores on the other variable) I.e. hours spent studying and grade point average – negative correlation: scores on one variable go up, scores on the other variable tend to go down I.e. hours spent partying and test scores
- Statistical Significance: the probability that the correlation would occur purely by chance is less than 5 out of 100. (p < .05)
- A correlation of .30 will not be significant if the sample size is 20 people but will be significant if the sample size is 50 people.
- correlations drawn from small samples need to be very large to reach statistical significance.
- Effect Size: reflects the size of the association between two variables independent of the sample size. Zero means there is no association between the variables. Because it is independent of sample size, the effect size can be used as a common metric and is valuable to compare the strength of findings across studies.
- Meta-analysis is a statistical approach that calculates and then combines the effect sizes from all the studies. each separate study can be thought of as being equivalent to an individual participant in a conventional research design. better way to summarize research findings than is possible with a literature review.
- Correlation does not mean causality (poverty does not = depression or lack of intelligence)
- Third Variable Problem: The correlation between ice cream consumption and drowning is a spurious one, caused by the fact that both variables are correlated with the weather. E.g. key factor linking the insanity and masturbation (and the unmeasured third variable) was that of impaired social awareness.
- Retrospective Research: See what patient is like before they develop symptoms of disorder – looking back with goal of identifying factors the lead to what went wrong later - limited to a patient’s recollections, recollections of family, material from diaries, other records. potential for memories to be both faulty and selective - invites biased procedure, unconscious or otherwise. Could convince patients who struggle that they have been abused when not actually, repressed
- Prospective Research Strategy: looking ahead in time - to identify individuals who have higher likelihood of being psychologically disordered and to focus on them before disorder manifests.
- Longitudinal Design: A study that follows people over time and that tries to identify factors that predate the onset of a disorder 10. Describe and explain the benefits and dimensions of the various research approaches.
- Direction of Effect Problem: Find strong positive or negative associations between variables, correlational research does not allow us to draw any conclusions about directionality (i.e. does variable A cause B, or does B cause A?)
- Experimental Research: To draw conclusions about causality and resolve questions of directionality
- Independent Variable: Factor that is manipulated
- Dependent Variable: If the outcome of interest (dependent variable) is observed to change as the manipulated factor is changed, then that independent variable can be regarded as a cause of the outcome
- E.g. Independent variable is the living situation of the child (Romanian orphanage or foster care). The dependent variable is intellectual functioning.
- Random Assignment: every research participant has an equal chance of being placed in the treatment or the no-treatment condition
itself. Fear of being viewed negatively or being dis- criminated against may lead some people to avoid seeking treatment Explain how culture affects what is considered abnormal and describe two different culture- specific disorders:
- Culture shapes the presentation of clinical disorders in some cases. Culture also provides the backdrop against which we must evaluate whether a particular behavior is abnormal or not.
- Certain disorders appear to be highly culture specific. Taijin kyofusho is an anxiety disorder that is quite prevalent in Japan. It involves fear that one’s body, body parts, or body functions may offend, embarrass, or make others feel uncomfortable. Ataque de nervios is another culturally rooted expression of distress. It is found in people of Latino descent, especially those from the Caribbean. This condition does not have a clear counterpart in the DSM. Symptoms can include crying, trembling, fainting, uncontrollable screaming, and a general feeling of loss of control. Distinguish between incidence and prevalence and identify the most common and prevalent mental disorders:
- Epidemiology involves the study of the distribution and frequency of disorders. Incidence is the number of new cases that occur in a given period of time. Prevaence refers to the total number cases in a population during any specified period of time.
- Just under 50 percent of people will experience some form of mental disorder during the course of their life- times. Mood disorders and anxiety disorders are particularly common. Discuss why abnormal psychology research can be conducted in almost any setting:
- Studying and drawing inferences from past case studies alone often leads to erroneous thinking as we often focus on data that confirm our ideas of how things are.
- Research prevents us from being misled by natural errors in thinking and can be conducted in clinics, hospitals, schools, prisons, and on the street. It is not the setting that determines whether a given research proect may be undertaken. The importance lies in the researcher’s methodology. Describe three different approaches used to gather information about mental disorders:
- Information about mental disorders can be collected through case studies, self-report data, and observational approaches.
- Case studies can be a valuable source of new ideas and serve as a stimulus for research. They also may pro- vide insight into unusual clinical conditions that are too rare to be studied in a more systematic way.
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- Self-report data allows us to study behavior in a more rigorous manner. This type of research often involves having research participants complete questionnaires of various types or conducting interviews.
- When we collect information in a way that does not involve asking people directly, we are using some form of observational approach. Exactly how we go about this depends on what it is we seek to understand. Explain why a control (or comparison group) is necessary to adequately test a hypothesis.
- Unless there is a control or comparison group, researchers cannot test their hypothesis adequately. The control group must be comparable in all major respects (age, educational level, proportion of males and females etc.) to the criterion group (e.g., people with the disorder we want to learn about), except for the fact that they do not exhibit the disorder of interest. The control group could be psychologically healthy people, or could comprise people with a different disorder.
- Only when they are using a suitable control or comparison group can researchers compare the two groups on the variables of interest to see if there are significant differences Discuss why correlational research designs are valuable, even though they cannot be used to make causal inferences.
- Correlational research examines factors as they currently are, allowing us to identify factors that appear to be associated with certain disorders.
- Just because two variables are correlated does not mean that there is a causal relationship between them. Correlation does not equal causation. Explain the key features of an experimental design.
- Experimental research involves manipulating one variable (the independent variable) and observing the effect this manipulation produces with regard to another variable (the dependent variable).
- Because the experimenter is changing the experimental conditions, experimental research designs permit causal inferences to be made.
- Although most experiments involve the study of groups, single-case experimental designs (e.g., ABAB designs) may also be used to make causal inferences in individual instances. Unit Notes Ch. 1:
- Biopsychosocial Approach : Present / describe wide range of biological, psychological, social factors that work together to lead to the development of psychological disorders. Discuss treatment approaches that target each of these different factors.
- Description - Development – Approach
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- Aristotle: descriptions of consciousness. He held the view that “thinking” as directed would eliminate pain and help to attain pleasure.
- Post Hippocrates work continued in Alexandria - Pleasant surroundings therapeutic value for mental illness, provided activities like parties, dances, walks in the temple gardens, rowing on the Nile, and concerts.
- Physicians also used range therapies including dieting, massage, hydrotherapy, gymnastics, education, as well as bleeding, purging, and mechanical restraints.
- Galen: Greek physicians practiced in Rome – through dissecting animals studied anatomy of the nervous system - also divided the causes of psychological disorders into physical and mental categories - causes he named were injuries to the head, excessive alcohol, shock, fear, adolescence, menstrual changes, economic reversals, and disappointment in love.
- Galen (A.D. 130 – 200) believed that psychological disorders could have either physical causes, such as injuries to the head, or mental causes, such as disappointment in lo
- Roman physicians wanted to make patients comfortable and thus therapies such as warm baths and massage. They also followed the principle of contrariis contrarius (or “opposite by opposite”) e.g. patients drink chilled wine while they were in a warm tub. 4. Discuss how mental disorders were viewed during the Middle Ages.
- The first mental hospital was established in Baghdad in A.D. 792 then more – patients received humane treatment
- Avicenna: Authored “The Canon of Medicine” frequently referred to hysteria, epilepsy, manic reactions, and melancholia.
- Scientific inquiry into abnormal behavior was limited, treatment of individuals who were psychologically disturbed was characterized by ritual or superstition than to try understanding an individual’s condition.
- the Middle Ages in Europe were largely devoid of scientific thinking and humane treatment for those with mental illness. 5. Give examples of mass madness or mass hysteria, and summarize the explanations offered for this unusual phenomenon.
- mass madness: the widespread occurrence of group behavior disorders that were apparently cases of hysteria.
- Dancing manias: (epidemics of raving, jumping, dancing, and convulsions) were reported as early as the tenth century.
- Tarantism: Dancing caused by spider bites or Saint Vitus’s dance
- Lycanthropy: possessed by wolves and imitated their behavior. 1541 a case was reported in which a person suffering from lycanthropy told his captors, in confidence, that he was really a wolf but that his skin was smooth on the surface because all the hairs were on the inside (Stone, 1937). To cure him of his delusions, his extremities were amputated, following which he died, still uncured.
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- Mass madness continued until —a period noted for social oppression, famine, and epidemic diseases. During this time, Europe was ravaged by a plague known as the Black Death, which killed millions
- Exorcisms from clergy, men in Africa thinking their genitals were vanishing (probably due to women’s rising socioeconomic status), witchcraft, witch hunt even in 1621 psychologist believed in demonic procession as a cause for mental illness 6. Describe the effect that humanism had on abnormal psychology - Identify developments that led to the contemporary view of abnormal psychology.
- Paracelsus: Early sceptic of superstitious beliefs about possession - postulated a conflict between the instinctual and spiritual natures of human beings – used hypnosis - belief in astral influences (lunatic)
- Weyer argued that those imprisoned, tortured, and burned for witchcraft were sick in mind or body, consequently, great wrongs were committed against innocent people.
- St. Vincent de Paul (1576–1660): risked his life, declared, “Mental disease is no different than bodily disease and Christianity demands of the humane and powerful to protect, and the skillful to relieve the one as well as the other”
- Asylums: sanctuaries of refuge meant for the care of people with mental illness 16 th^ c. -
- Early asylums to remove people from society “madhouse” storage places for people who were insane. -
- 1768, the Public Hospital in Williamsburg, Virginia was the first hospital in the United States devoted exclusively to patients with mental illness - there the philosophy of treatment involved the belief that the patients needed to choose rationality over insanity - aggressive, aimed at restoring a “physical balance in the body and brain.” 7. Describe the humanitarian reforms in the treatment of mental patients that were instigated by Philippe Pinel, William Tuke, Benjamin Rush, and Dorothea Dix.
- PINEL’S EXPERIMENT In 1792: remove the chains from some of the inmates as experiment to test views that patients with mental illness should be treated with kindness and consideration—as sick people, not as beasts or criminals
- Chains removed; sunny rooms provided; patients permitted to exercise and kindness was extended, some of whom had been chained in dungeons for 30 + years.
- issued orders forbidding the staff from beating patients
- William Tuke (1732–1822) established York Retreat, a pleasant country house where patients with mental illness lived, worked, and rested in a kindly, religious atmosphere
- The Quakers: believed in treating all people/insane, with kindness and acceptance. would help people with mental illness recover sparked growth of more humane psychiatric treatment during a period when such patients were ignored and mistreated
- Thomas Wakley and Samuel Hitch: I ntroduced trained nurses into the wards at the Gloucester Asylum and supervisors at the head of the nursing staffs. revolutionary, not only improved care of patients also changed attitudes toward mental disturbances.
- In 1845, the Country Asylums Act was passed in England, which required every county to provide asylum to “paupers and lunatics”
115 certain types of mental retardation) contributed in a major way to the development of a scientific approach to abnormal psychology, as well as to the emergence of modern experimental science which was largely biological. Identify developments that led to the contemporary view of abnormal psychology.
- (1) biological discoveries, (2) the development of a classification system for mental disorders, (3) the emergence of psychological causation views, and (4) experimental psychological research developments.
- A major biomedical breakthrough, the discovery of the organic factors underlying general paresis—syphilis of the brain. A most serious mental illnesses then, general paresis produced paralysis and insanity and typically caused death within 2 to 5 years as a result of brain deterioration.
- Bayle gave complete and accurate description of the symptom pattern of paresis and convincingly presented his reasons for believing paresis to be a distinct disorder.
- Then inoculation of patients with paresis with matter from syphilitic sores - which led to the conclusion that they must previously have been infected. This crucial experiment established the relationship between general paresis and syphilis. Then made blood test to detect for syphilis bacteria before infection.
- Used malaria vaccination to cause high fever which then aided the paresis symptoms - this was indoctrinated bc of great results - first clear-cut conquest of a mental disorder by medical science. 9. Distinguish between biological and non-biological versions of medical-model thinking about psychopathology.
- Scientists began to focus on diseased body organs as the cause of physical ailments.
- Griesinger insisted all mental disorders could be explained in terms of brain pathology.
- Established the brain pathology in cerebral arteriosclerosis and in senile mental disorders. 20 th^ cent, organic pathologies underlying the toxic mental disorders (disorders caused by toxic substances such as lead), certain types of mental retardation, and other mental illnesses were discovered.
- Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) developed an early synthesis and classification system of hundreds of mental disorders by grouping diseases together based on common patterns of symptoms. Kraepelin also demonstrated that mental disorders showed specific patterns in the genetics, course, and outcome of disorders - became the forerunner of today’s DSM classification - the outcome of a given type of disorder could presumably be predicted even if it could not yet be controlled. 10. Trace the important events in the development of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic perspective.
- Bernheim and Lié beault worked together to develop the hypothesis that hypnotism and hysteria were related and that both were due to suggestion - self-hypnosis
- Freud: inner dynamics of unconscious motives (often referred to as psychodynamics) that are at the heart of the psychoanalytic perspective.
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- Mesmer concluded that all people possessed magnetic forces that could be used to influence the distribution of the magnetic fluid in other people, thus effecting cures
- Mesmer (1734–1815) believed distribution of magnetic fluid in body responsible for determining health or disease. Thought that all people possessed magnetic forces that could be used to influence the distribution of fluid in others, thus effecting cures.
- Freud: Learned under Charcot and later became acquainted with the work of Lié beault and Bernheim at Nancy School – impressed by hypnosis
- Freud and Breuer directed patients to talk freely about their problems while under hypnosis. The felt a significant emotional release, which was called a catharsis
- The patients, on awakening, saw no relationship between their problems and their hysterical symptoms. This led to discovery of unconscious
- the portion of the mind that contains experiences of which a person is unaware - the belief that processes outside of a person’s awareness can play an important role in determining behavior. 11. Contrast the biological and psychodynamic views of abnormal disorders.
- Soon it was suggested that psychological factors were also involved in anxiety states, phobias, and other psychopathologies.
- The debate over whether mental disorders are caused by biological or psychological factors continues to this day. 12. Describe how the techniques of free association and dream analysis helped both analysts and their patients.
- free association, involved having patients talk freely about themselves, thereby providing information about their feelings, motives, and so forth.
- dream analysis, involved having patients record and describe their dreams 13. List the major features of the behavioural perspective.
- only the study of directly observable behavior—and the stimuli and reinforcing conditions that “control” it—could serve as a basis for formulating scientific principles of human behavior. - Thought Freuds theories could not be confirmed by what patients say about themselves. the role of learning in human behavior -
- Tied to experimental work called classical conditioning - form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned behavior. Which started with Pavlov 14. Discriminate between classical and operant conditioning.
- Watson reasoned that if psychology was to become a true science, it would have to abandon the subjectivity of inner sensations and other “mental” events and limit itself to what could be objectively observed.
- Watson thus changed the focus of psychology to the study of overt behavior rather than the study of theoretical mentalistic constructs, an approach he called behaviorism.
- Become cocky and argued he could train healthy sound child - suggesting that abnormal behavior was the product of unfortunate, inadvertent earlier conditioning and could be modified through reconditioning.
118 recognized, and in the eighteenth century further efforts were made to help afflicted individuals by pro- viding them with better living conditions and humane treatment, although these improvements were the exception rather than the rule.
- The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed a number of scientific and humanitarian advances. The work of Philippe Pinel in France, of William Tuke in England, and of Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Dix in the United States prepared the way for several impor- tant developments in contemporary abnormal psychol- ogy, such as moral management. Among these were the gradual acceptance of patients with mental illness as afflicted individuals who need and deserve profes- sional attention; the successful application of biomedi- cal methods to disorders; and the growth of scientific research into the biological, psychological, and socio- cultural roots of abnormal behavior.
- The reform of mental hospitals continued into the twentieth century, but during the last four decades of the century, there was a strong movement to close mental hospitals and release people into the commu- nity. This movement remains Identify developments that led to the contemporary view of abnormal psychology.
- In the nineteenth century, great technological discov- eries and scientific advancements that were made in the biological sciences enhanced the understanding and treatment of individuals with mental illness. One major biomedical breakthrough came with the discov- ery of the organic factors underlying general paresis— syphilis of the brain—one of the most serious mental illnesses of the day.
- Beginning in the early part of the eighteenth century, knowledge of anatomy, physiology, neurology, chemistry, and general medicine increased rapidly. These advances led to the identification of the bio- logical, or organic, pathology underlying many physical ailments.
- The development of a psychiatric classification system by Kraepelin played a dominant role in the early development of the biological viewpoint. Kraepelin’s work (a forerunner to the DSM system) helped to establish the importance of brain pathology in mental disorders and made several related contributions that helped establish this viewpoint.
- The first major steps toward understanding psycho- logical factors in mental disorders occurred with mes- merism and the Nancy School, followed by the work of Sigmund Freud. During five decades of observa- tion, treatment, and writing, he developed a theory of psychopathology, known as psychoanalysis, that emphasized the inner dynamics of unconscious motives. During the past half-century, other clinicians have modified and revised Freud’s theory, which has thus evolved into new psychodynamic perspectives.
- Scientific investigation into psychological factors and human behavior began to make progress in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The end of the nine- teenth century and the early twentieth century saw experimental psychology evolve into clinical psychol- ogy with the development of clinics to study, as well as intervene in, abnormal behavior.
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- Paralleling this development was the work of Pavlov in understanding learning and conditioning. Behav- iorism emerged as an explanatory model in abnormal psychology. The behavioral perspective is organized around a central theme—that learning plays an impor- tant role in human behavior. Although this perspective was initially developed through research in the labora- tory (unlike psychoanalysis, which emerged out of clinical practice with disturbed individuals), it has been shown to have important implications for explaining and treating maladaptive behavior.
- Understanding the history of psychopathology—its forward steps and missteps alike—helps us under- stand the emergence of modern concepts of abnormal behavior. UNIT 3: 3.1 Distinguish between risk factors and causes of abnormal behavior.
- abuse is said to be correlated with depression
- knowing that two things are correlated doesn’t tell you if one caused the other
- if, X is shown to precede Y in time we can infer that X is a risk factor for Y
- Next question we want to ask is if X can be changed – if yes = variable risk factor for outcome Y – if no = fixed marker of outcome Y (e.g. as is the case with a history of abuse during childhood)
- key question for causality is whether changing X leads to a change in Y. If not, then X would be considered a variable marker of Y. If so, then and only then, would we consider X to be a causal risk factor for condition Y.
- here are different types of causal relations in the etiology , or causal pattern, of abnormal behavior
- necessary cause (X) is a characteristic that must exist for a disorder (Y) to occur - if Y occurs, then X must have preceded it (can’t get general paresis Y without syphilis X)
- most mental disorders have not been found to have necessary causes
- sufficient cause of a disorder is a condition that guarantees occurrence of a disorder.
- However, a sufficient cause may not be a necessary cause. Ask yourself: “Can it be shown that ...... ” Then start at the top-left box and work your way down.
