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Psychology 100 Exam 2 2025/2026 Real
Questions And Answers.
Learning
Relatively permenant change in an organism behavior due to experience.
3 Types of Learning
- Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning
- Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
- Observational (Social) Leaning
Ivan Pavlov
1.First to describe classical conditioning.
2.Russian Physiologist
3.Interested in saliva's role in digestion
4.Ran experiments with dogs
5.Won a nobel prize in 1904
Unconditioned Stimulus
Stimulus that elicits a particular response (reflexive, involuntary reactions) without the necessity of learning.
Unconditioned Response
Involuntary, automatic response that occurs to a stimulus without the necessity of learning
Conditioned Stimulus
Stimulus that does not elicit a particular response initially but comes to do so as a result of becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response
Response that comes to be made to the conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian)
The process in which an organism learns to associate stimuli, and thus anticipate events. Simple, occurs across species.
Aquisition
Conditioned Stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, Conditioned stimulus begins to elicit the Conditioned response
Extinction
Unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus, conditioned response eventually disappears.
Law of Effect
If a response in a presence of a stimulus is followed by a satisfying event, the association between the stimulus and the response will be strenghened. if the response is followed by an annoying event, the association will be weakened.
B.F. Skinner
Studied operant conditioning with rats. Devised Skinner's Box.
Operant Conditioning
The process whereby an organism learns to associate a response and its consequences and thus to repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishment. occurs across species.
Reinforcers
Stimuli that increase the probability of behavior.
Primary Reinforcers
Events that are innately reinforcing (food, water, things with biological significance)
Secondary Reinforcers
Require learning. (Money, Praise etc.)
Positive Reinforcement
Presentaton of a desirable stimulus increases the probablility of behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Nothing to do with punishment. Removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probablity of behavior.
Punishers
Stimuli that decrease the probablility of behavior.
Positive Punishment
Presentation of an aversive stimulus decreases the probablility of behavior.
Negative Punishment
Removal of a desirable stimulus decreases the probabliltiy of behavior.
Shaping
1.Method of successive approximations.
- Reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior.
3.Must ignore all previous or unrelated behavior.
When do we start imitating?
1.Facial expressions can be imitated by infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks old.
- 9 month old infants can imitate a novel play behaviour.
- 14 month olds can imitate acts modeled on television.
Aspects that determine the likelihood of imitation in children
- Outcome of modeled behavior
- Similarity between observer and model.
- Status of model
Bandura, Ross, and Ross, 1961
Experiment with children and bobo dolls. Studied if agression could be learned.
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Information Processing Model
Assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory.
3 Stages of Information Processing Model
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
Automatic Encoding
Information is stored with very little effort. Examples: Knowledge of event frequency, time and location.
Effortful Encoding
Effort to encode and remember information is required. Examples: Concepts for an exam.
Herman Ebbinghaus
- 1850- 1909
- First to consistently study memory.
- Considered the father of memory.
- Used nonsense syllables to find that the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning and the benefits of over learning.
Spacing Effects
Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
3.Two types: Iconic Memory and Echoic Memory.
- Sensory memory can only be maintained for a short amount of time.
Iconic Memory
Visual information, doesn't last very long
Echoic Memory
Auditory information, Lasts a little longer than iconic memory. Usually 2-4 seconds.
Short Term Memory
Has a limited storage capacity. Holds memory for only a limited period, unless rehearsal is used. Then is transferred to Long Term Memory.
Digit Span Test
Used to test short term memory capacity by George A. Miller. Says that memory can hold approximatively 5 to 9 items short term.
George A. Miller
- (1956)
- Used digit span test.
- Found that the short term memory can only hold around 7 items at a time.
Long Term Memory
Permanent and limitless reservoir of information.
Episodic Memory
Portion of long term memory that stores personally experienced events.
Procedural Memory
Portion of long term memory that stores information related to skills and habits.
Semantic Memory
Portion of long term memory that stores general facts and information.
Updates to Stage Model
- Some information can go straight to long term memory, without conscious awareness.
- Working memory vs. short term memory. Associates new and old information and solves problems. Information that is important or novel that we focus our attention on.
Retrieval
2 Kinds: Recall and Recognition
Storage Decay
Fading of the physical memory trace.
Retrieval Failure
Difficulty in retrieving information that was previously stored.
Proactive Interference
Prior learning interferes with recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference
New learning interferes with recall of old information
Childhood Amnesia
inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.
Amnesia
Severe deficit in remembering events caused by problems in the functioning of the memory areas of the brain. Causes: Alzheimer's disease, strokes, chronic alcoholism, brain damage.
Frontal Lobe In Memory
Houses Short term memories: semantic, and episodic
Cerebellum in Memory
Houses procedural memories
Hippocampus in Memory
Houses the formation of new semantic and episodic memories.
Mnemonics
A strategy or trick for aiding memory
Imagery
The forming of mental pictures of the items, people, words, or activities you want to remember.
Elaborate Rehearsal
Linking of new information in short term memory to material stored in long term memory.
