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PYB202 Exam Questions And
Correct Answers
Self-concept - Answer beliefs about oneself that guide processing of self-relevant information.
Self-perception - Answer The process of how we come to know ourselves is by observing our behaviour and making attributions.
i.e. What does my behaviour say about me?
Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) - Answer The arguement that people develop their attitudes by observing their own behaviour and conclude what attitudes may have caused it.
When our internal cues are weak we look at our behaviour to assess our self-perception.
Example: Am I a sustainable person?
Do i engage in recycling behaviour -> make an inference
Self-perception and motivation - Answer Thanking about our behaviour and whether external factors can explain it has implications for motivation
Intrinsic verus extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic: internal motivation doing something out of interest, enjoyment, and challenge
Extrinsic: External motivation doing something for money, marks, recognition, obligation or punishment
Over justification effect - Answer - When we shift intrinsic reward to extrinsic
- We become dependent
- We no longer conclde we're doing it because we like it
Self-perception and motivation (Lepper et al., 1973) - Answer method: Preschool aged children played with markers, then measured how much the children played with the markers a week later with no reward on offer
conditions:
unexpected reward
No reward
Expected reward (over-justification)
IV: type of reward (intrinsic or extrinsic)
DV: lvl of subsequent intrinsic motivation
results: unexpected reward generated the most play with the markers the next week, then no reward, and then expected reward.
conclusion: over-justification can decrease perceived enjoyment of an activity
Are rewards always bad? - Answer verbal praise good for motivation
tangible reward bad for motivation
Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) - Answer ppl evaluate own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
Upward comparison
- compare self to someone better
- bad for self esteem
Downward comparison
- compare self to someone worse
- good for self esteem
western vs non-western views of self - Answer Western
Independent view of the self
•Define oneself using own thoughts, feelings and behaviours
•self esteem is typically higher in independent cultures
Non-Western
Interdependent view of the self
•Define ones elf using one's relationships to others and that our behaviour is determined by thoughts, feelings and behaviours of others
Self Esteem - Answer Refers to the evaluation of the self
judgments we make about our worth, the feelings about those judgments and overall value that one places on the self as a person
people are motivated to protect their self esteem
Sociometer Theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000) - Answer •Self -esteem signals level of
teacher's nonverbals based on clips study (Ambady & Rosenthal, 1993) - Answer Ratings of teachers' ability to teach based on nonverbal behaviour based on 3 x 10 second silent video clips
High consensus
detecting lies - Answer ppl bad at judging truth and deception, even with relevant training bc they focus on face too much
giveaways:
- voice speed/pitch
- cognitive effort like telling backwards
Attribution - Answer how ppl explain behaviour
- personal/dispositional: internal characteristic of the person caused the behaviour (e.g. ability, personality, mood, effort, etc.)
- situational: external factor caused the behaviour (the task, other people, luck)
Correspondence Inference Theory (Jones & Harris, 1967) - Answer Attribute behaviour to a corresponding personality trait
behaviour bigger deal when:
- freely chosen
- unexpected
- produces bad effects
Covariation Model (Kelly, 1967) - Answer The cause of the behaviour should be present when the behaviour occurs and absent when it does not
ppl base internality/externality off:
Consensus: how do other people react to the stimulus
Distinctiveness how weird is the behaviour
Consistency how often does the person act like this
fundamental attribution error - Answer •Tendency to overlook situational factors and instead make internal attributions for others' behaviour
Ross (1977) fundamental attribution error - Answer •It looks like the quizmaster knows more (personal), but this is just due to the role (the situation)
Underlying Process to Fundamental Attribution Error(Gilbert & Malone, 1995) - Answer situational attribution takes effort whereas personal attribution is automatic
Impression formation - Answer the forming of central traits, primacy and valence affects
Asch's Configural model (1946) - Answer •Central traits (eg nice vs mean)
•Peripheral traits (eg polite vs blunt)
Social Dimensions (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick 2007) - Answer Warmth: good or ill intent
Competence: ability to act on intentions
Confirmation bias/confirmatory hypothesis testing - Answer ppl look for info that confirms their view
perseverance of beliefs - Answer og impression persists despite more info
Perseverance of Beliefs (Darley and Gross 1983) - Answer • Participants were given background information about a child and then watched her take a test
•conditions: background says high/low SES
•After video, ratings were affected by background info
Synder and Swann (1978) confirmatory hypothesis testing experiment - Answer •told participants they were to interview an introvert or extrovert
•Participants chose questions that suited this characteristic
•e.g., what would you do to liven up a party vs. what kind of events make you feel like being alone?
•Constrains the other person's behaviour
self-fulfilling prophecy - Answer an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.
Self fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968) - Answer •Informed year 1/ teachers that an IQ test indicated some students were due for an intelligence growth spurt ("bloomers")
-sociologist accompanied Chinese American
couple to 250 US establishments
- sent a follow-up letter requesting couple's
acceptance at the places to gauge American
'attitudes' towards Chinese...
-in person refused once but >90% respondents
refused via letter...
- many study limitations but trend towards a low correspondence between attitudes and behaviour - Theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) - Answer intention = estimate of the probability one will perform a certain behaviour
- attitude = how favourable or unfavourable a person feels toward the behaviour
- subjective norm = perceived social pressure to perform/not perform a behaviour
•Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; see Figure) - Answer −Perceived behavioural control (PBC) = perceived ease and control over performing or not performing the behaviour
−
−much support for the model
−focus on matching measure specificity
−criticisms including weak
intention-behaviour link
Define Persuasion - Answer the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions
Two routes of persuasion (ELM) - Answer •Elaboration Likelihood Model
•central (paying close attention) vs. peripheral (superficial notice)
•central route influenced by quality of the arguments
•peripheral route influenced by persuasion cues (heuristics)
Hovland Yale Model - Answer the effectiveness of persuasion depends on who says what to whom in which way
Persuasion: Source Characteristics - Answer •credibility: the more credible the source (e.g., experts and those we trust), the more persuasive the message
•sleeper effect: delayed increase in the persuasive impac t of a non-credible source.
•Hovland et al. study (graph on left): message attributed to:
½ participants - Oppenheimer (respected physicist à HIGH credibility)
½ participants - Soviet newspaper "Pravda" (LOW credibility)
- processes of discounting and disassociation
effect disappears if reminded of original source (graphs on right)
Persuasion: Message Characteristics - Answer •length:
•longer more persuasive if arguments perceived as valid (peripheral processing)
•longer le ss persuasive if additional arguments perceived as weak/redundant (central processing)
•order:
•primacy (remembering first presented) and recency (remembering last presented) effects at play
•role of emotion: negative (e.g., fear) vs. positive (e.g., humou r, pride)
Fear vs Humour - Answer •Protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1983): motivation to protect oneself from threat influenced by:
- severity of event (It's serious)
- probability of event (It could happen to me)
effort justification paradigm induced forced compliance paradigm
Aronson and Mills (1959) Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
mild versus severe group initiation lying about boring motor task ($1 vs $20)
Resistance to Persuasion: Reactance - Answer people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves
Resistance to Persuasion: Forwarning - Answer awareness allows time to prepare
Resistance to Persuasion: inonculation - Answer exposure to weak versions of an argument increases later resistance to the argument
Define social influence - Answer The process whereby attitudes and behaviours are influenced by real or implied presence of others.
complaiance - Answer •compliance = changes in behaviour elicited by direct requests
•basis is often power
•strategies
•ingratiation
•norm of reciprocity
•sequential requests
foot-in-the-door phenomenon - Answer "lowballing"
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
(from small to large)
door-in-the-face phenomenon - Answer tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made
(from large to small)
Obedience - Answer A form of behaviour change that is initiated by direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Milgram's Obedience Study - Answer study of the phenomenon of obedience
•question of inter est:
would participant obey instructions even if causing obvious harm to others?
examined the effects of punishment on learning through the roles of "teacher" i.e. the paticipant mediated by a professor i.e. authority figure and the learner i.e. an actor
(shock treatment for mistakes)
Results: 65% shocked dangerous amounts of voltage when ordered
Asch's conformity experiment - Answer demonstrated the degree to which an individuals own opinions are influences by those of a majority group.
•question of interest:
would participants conform to others' clearly wrong responses?
•method:
- groups of 7-9 males (1 real participant, rest confederates) called out which of 3 comparison lines the standard line matched; 'real' participant responded 2nd last; in 18 trials, confederates chose correctly only one third of the time
Define Conformity - Answer •conformity = changing our perceptions, opinions, or behaviour to be consistent with group norms
- Sherif's (1936) autokinetic experiment - Answer •question of interest:
would people converge on a group norm?
•theoretical basis:
•from Allport's (1924) convergence effect where people give more conservative estimates in groups than alone
•group norms dev elop from people's uncertainty about the social world
•use of others as 'frame of reference'
•average/middle positions considered more correct than fringe positions
•method:
•groups judged a perceptual illusion 'autokinetic effect' of spot of light's move ment in the dark (actually stationary)
•called out estimates in random order
Results: showed a norm convergence (people converged on the mean of the group's estimate) and norm persistence (norm became internalised later when estimating alon)
Factors that influence conformity - Answer •privacy of responses.. reduces conformity
•sex differences: females > males (but see graph)
•cultural differences: collectivist > individualist
•group size: most 3 -5: any more, little effect
•unanimity of responses.. (se e graph)
•dissenters reduce conformity
(but depends on competency)
•and dissenters effective even if more incorrect
or indecisive.. opens up alternatives!
Social influence processes underlying conformity - Answer • normative + informational influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955; Kelley, 1952)
informational: reality check, especially for ambiguous stimuli (true change)
normative: gain social approval, must have surveillance by group (surface)
•BUT: Deutsch and Gerard (1 955) showed that conformity occurred when neither influence was operating! Some theorists suggest a role for group norms (referent informational influence is operating)
Define Minority influence - Answer A type of social influence that motivates individuals to reject established majority group norms.
Factors that contribute to minority influence - Answer •people motivated to reduce conflict that minorities stir up?
•dependent on behavioural style: CONSISTENCY!
•only effective if build up idiosyncrasy cred its: interpersonal 'credits' a person earns by following group norms?
•produces true change?
•other explanations (e.g., attribution - freely chosen position)
Define a Group - Answer a set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals, or identity
abilities and attitudes by comparing themselves to others
specific (directly related) vs. diffuse (generally valued) status characteristics
Define a norm - Answer •rules of conduct for members
•can be formal or informal; descriptive('is') and prescriptive ('ought');
•explicit or implicit (violation of hidden norms to discover them)
•fairly resistant to change
•provi de guidelines on how to behave as a typical group member
•can influence the individual in the absence of the group: the group is carried in the head of an individual in the form of a norm
•deviations from the norm can be tolerated especially by leaders (id iosyncrasy credits) and if group seen as one that has variability
social facilitation - Answer •process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks
Triplett (1998) bicycle experiment - Answer •people cycled faster when paced than alone
•Whether or not social facilitation occurs depends on the type of task: people tend to experience social facilitation when they are familiar with a task or for well-learned skills. However, social inhibition (decreased performance in the presence of others) occurs for difficult or novel tasks.
Zajonc (1965) Drive Theory - Answer arousal enhanced through the perception of the presence of other individuals plays a crucial role in social facilitation
Cottrell's Evaluation Apprehension Theory - Answer Attentive others produce fear of evaluation (not just mere presence)
Baron's Distraction-Conflict Theory - Answer A theory of Social Facilitation where the presence of others demands our attention as well as completing a task. It is this conflict that increases arousal and thus leads to either an improvement or impairment in performance.
Define social loafing - Answer •group -produced reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled
Social Loafing - Answer Ringelmann's (1913) Experiment
•performance varying as a function of group size; coordination or motivation loss?
Ingham et al. (1974)
•ruled out coordination explanation via rope pulling study
Latane et al. (1974)
•motivation loss = social loafing
Factors that influence social loafing - Answer •greater anonymity: ↑ loafing
•valuing/involvement in task: ↓ loafing
•believing one can help achieve desired outcome: ↓ loafing
•intergroup comparison (v s. outgroup): ↓ loafing
•anticipated loafing of others (compensation): ↓ loafing
Define deindividuation - Answer •loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behaviour
Define group polarisation - Answer •exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussion
Stoner (1961) risky shift - Answer •group shifts to a more extreme (& risky) decision
explanations:
•persuasive arguments: ex posed to a greater number and more persuasive arguments
•social comparison: need for social approval (shift to more extreme views)
•self -categorisation theory: a way in which an ingroup can distinguish themselves from outgroups
- implications for extremism
Define social dilemma - Answer •situation in which a self -interested choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone
The Prisoner's Dilemma - Answer •co -operative or competitive moves designed to assess whether people engage in self-interest personally or consider the outcomes for others
The tragedy of the commons - Answer •(use of a limited resource without considering the effects for all if everyone adopted the same approach)
•individual interest versus common good
•relevant to social is sues such as environmental dilemmas
Group decision making: juries - Answer Factors which can influence juries:
•group decision making processes discussed and conformity (informational and normative)
•race of accused
•racial composition of juries can hav e an effect (e.g., White jurors in more diverse juries convict minority race defendants less)
•for weak evidence, more lenient to own race defendants but for strong evidence, harsher
•when race a prominent part of case, greater processing of evidence may l ead to less racial bias
•jury foreperson/jury speaker
•higher occupational status (diffuse status characteristics) or jury experience
•the first person who speaks
•where you sit at table (head of a rectangular table)
•harshness of penalties (if t oo harsh, backfires)
Define stereotypes - Answer •cognitive beliefs or associations linking a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics
•can distort our perceptions and often resistant to change
•resolve ambiguity (contributes to stere otype persistence)
Self-fulfilling prophecies - Answer a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
stigma - Answer feeling negatively evaluated due to group membership
Define prejudice - Answer •negative feelings towards certain people based on their group membership
Define discrimination - Answer •behaviour directed against people based on their group membership
