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Rasmussen Pathophysiology Exam 2 |
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Inflammation of the stomach's mucosal lining (may involve the entire stomach or a region) - ✔✔Gastritis Can be a mild, transient irritation, or it can be a severe ulceration with hemorrhage - ✔✔Acute Gastritis Usually develops suddenly and is likely to be accompanied by nausea and epigastric pain - ✔✔Acute Gastritis Gastritis develops gradually. - ✔✔Chronic Gastritis Gastritis can be further categorized as erosive or nonerosive - ✔✔Chronic Gastritis Symptoms of: Anorexia, nausea & vomiting, postprandial discomfort, and hematemesis. - ✔✔Acute Gastritis Symptoms of: May be asymptomatic, but usually accompanied by a dull epigastric pain and a sensation of fullness after minimal intake. - ✔✔Chronic Gastritis Inflammation of the stomach and intestines, usually because of an infection or allergic reaction - ✔✔Gastroenteritis Usually due to primary inflammatory disease such as crohns disease - ✔✔Chronic Gastroenteritis Commonly due to direct infection such as salmonella from raw or undercooked chicken or eggs - ✔✔Acute Gastroenteritis
Signs & Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, pain, nausea, and vomiting - ✔✔Gastroenteritis Most common cause of chronic gastritis - ✔✔Helicobacter pylori Embeds itself in the mucous layer, activating toxins and enzymes that cause inflammation. Genetic vulnerability and lifestyle behaviors (smoking and stress) may increase the susceptibility - ✔✔Helicobacter pylori Other causes of?: Organisms transmitted though food and water contamination, long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, excessive alcohol use, severe stress, autoimmune conditions, and other chronic disease - ✔✔Gastritis Complications of?: Peptic ulcers, gastric cancer, and hemorrhage - ✔✔Chronic Gastritis Manifestations of?: Include indigestion, heartburn, epigastric pain, abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fever, and malaise. Hematemesis and dark, tarry stools can indicate ulceration and bleeding. - ✔✔Gastritis Chyme periodically backs up from the stomach into the esophagus. Bile can also back up into the esophagus. - ✔✔GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease) These gastric secretions irritate the esophageal mucosa - ✔✔GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease) Causes of?: certain foods (e.g., chocolate, caffeine, carbonated beverages, citrus fruit, tomatoes, spicy or fatty foods, and peppermint), alcohol consumption, nicotine, hiatal hernia, obesity, pregnancy, certain medications (e.g., corticosteroids, beta blockers, calcium-channel blockers, and anticholinergics), nasogastric intubation, and delayed gastric emptying - ✔✔GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease) Manifestations of?: heartburn, epigastric pain (usually after a meal or when recombinant), dysphagia, dry cough, laryngitis, pharyngitis, regurgitation of food, and sensation of a lump in the throat. - ✔✔GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease)
Complications of?: abscesses, peritonitis, gangrene, and death - ✔✔Appendicitis Most frequently develop in the stomach; multiple ulcers can form within hours of the precipitating event. - ✔✔Stress ulcers Often hemorrhage is the first indicator because the ulcer develops rapidly and tends to be masked by the primary problem - ✔✔Stress ulcer Complications of?: GI hemorrhage, obstruction, perforation, and peritonitis - ✔✔Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) Manifestations of?: epigastric or abdominal pain, abdominal cramping, heartburn, indigestion, nausea, and vomiting - ✔✔Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) Acute inflammation and necrosis of large intestine; it affects the mucosa and sometimes other layers - ✔✔Pseudomembranous Colitis (C. Diff) Causes of?: Exposure to antibiotics, patients with cancer, or post abdominal surgery susceptible, mediated by bacterial toxins - ✔✔Pseudomembranous Colitis (C. Diff) Manifestations of?: Diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal pain, fever, and leukocytosis - ✔✔Pseudomembranous Colitis (C. Diff) Inflammation of the vermiform appendix. Most often caused by an infection. Triggers local tissue edema, which obstructs the small structure. As fluid builds inside the appendix, microorganisms proliferate - ✔✔Appendicitis The appendix fills with purulent exudate and area blood vessels become compressed - ✔✔Appendicitis Ischemia and necrosis develop. The pressure inside the appendix escalates, forcing bacteria and toxins out to surrounding structures. - ✔✔Appendicitis
Manifestations of?: Vary from asymptomatic to sudden and severe. Sharp abdominal pain develops, gradually intensifies (over about 12 - 24 hours), and becomes localized to the lower right quadrant of the abdomen (McBurney point). Pain may occur anywhere in abdomen. Pain will temporarily subside if the appendix ruptures, and then the pain will return and escalate. - ✔✔Appendicitis Manifestations of?: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal distension, and bowel pattern changes. indications of inflammation and infection (fever, chills, leukocytosis). Indications of peritonitis (abdominal rigidity, tachycardia, and hypotension) - ✔✔Appendicitis Conditions related to the development of diverticula, outwardly bulging pouches of the intestinal wall that occur when mucosa sections or large intestine submucosa layers herniate through a weakened muscular layer. - ✔✔Diverticular Disease May be congenital or acquired. Thought to be caused by a low-fiber diet and poor bowel habits that result in chronic constipation. The muscular wall can become weakened from the prolonged effort of moving hard stools. More common in developed countries where processed foods and low-fiber diets are typical. - ✔✔Diverticular Disease Asymptomatic diverticular disease, usually with multiple diverticula present - ✔✔Diverticulosis Diverticula have become inflamed, usually because of retained fecal matter. Can result in potentially fatal obstructions, infection, abscess, perforation, peritonitis, hemorrhage, and shock. Often asymptomatic until the condition becomes serious - ✔✔Diverticulitis Manifestations?: abdominal cramping followed by passing a large quantity of frank blood, low-grade fever, abdominal tenderness (usually left lower quadrant), abdominal distension, constipation, obstipation, nausea, vomiting, palpable abdominal mass, and leukocytosis - ✔✔Diverticular Disease Consist of physical barriers, whereas functional obstructions result from GI tract dysfunction. Partial or complete blockage of small or large bowel. - ✔✔Mechanical Bowel Obstruction
is considered a medical emergency. Mortality increases with advancing age and comorbidity. - ✔✔Acute Pancreatitis Complications of?: Acute respiratory distress syndrome, diabetes mellitus, infection, shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation, renal failure, malnutrition, pancreatic cancer, pseudocyst, and abscess. - ✔✔Acute Pancreatitis Manifestations of?: usually sudden and severe. Upper abdominal pain that radiates to the back, worsens after eating, and is somewhat relieved by leaning forward or pulling the knees toward the chest. Nausea and vomiting. Mild jaundice. Low-grade fever. Blood pressure and pulse changes. - ✔✔Acute Pancreatitis Manifestations of?: upper abdominal pain. Indigestion. Losing weight without trying. Steatorrhea. Constipation. Flatuence. - ✔✔Chronic Pancreatitis Inflammation or infection in the biliary system caused by calculi - ✔✔Cholecystitis Varies in severity depending on size. May obstruct bile flow and cause gallbladder rupture, fistula formation, gangrene, hepatitis, pancreatitis, and carcinoma - ✔✔Cholecystitis Gallstones. A common condition that affects both genders and all ethic groups relatively equally. - ✔✔Cholelithiasis Risk factors of?: advancing age, obesity, diet, rapid weight loss, pregnancy, hormone replacement, and long-term parenteral nutrition. Calculi vary in size and shape. - ✔✔Cholelithiasis Manifestations of?: biliary colic, abdominal distension, nausea, vomiting, jaundice, fever, and leukocytes
- ✔✔Cholelthiasis Sudden loss of renal function. Generally reversible. Most commonly occurs in critically ill, hospitalized patients. - ✔✔Acute Renal Failure Risk factors of?: advanced age, autoimmune disorders, and liver disease. - ✔✔Acute Renal Failure
Causes of Acute Renal Failure: _. Extremely low blood pressure or blood volume. Heart dysfunction
- ✔✔Prerenal Conditions Causes of Acute Renal Failure:. Reduced blood supply within the kidneys. Hemolytic uremic syndrome. Renal inflammation. Toxic injury. - ✔✔Intrarenal Conditions Causes of Acute Renal Failure:. Ureter obstruction. Bladder obstruction and dysfunction. - ✔✔Postrenal Conditions The four phases of Acute Renal Failure. - ✔✔Asymptomatic Phase, Oliguric Phase, Diuretic Phase, and Recovery Phase Daily urine output decreases to approximately 400 mL or less, such that waste products begin to accumulate. - ✔✔Oliguric Phase Daily urine output increases to as much as 5 L. - ✔✔Diuretic Phase Glomerular function gradually returns to normal. - ✔✔Recovery Phase Manifestations of?: decreasing urine output, electrolyte disturbances, fluid volume excess, azotemia, and metabolic acidosis - ✔✔Oliguric Phase Manifestations of?: increased urine output, electrolyte disturbances, dehydration, and hypotension - ✔✔Diuretic Phase Manifestations of?: symptoms begin resolving - ✔✔Recovery Phase Gradual loss of renal function that is irreversible. - ✔✔Chronic Kidney Disease
Manifestations of?: severe UTI symptoms, flank pain, and increased blood pressure - ✔✔Pyelonephritis Inflammation of the bladder. The bladder and urethra walls become red and swollen - ✔✔Cystitis Causes of?: infection and irritants - ✔✔Cystitis Manifestations of?: UTI symptoms, abdominal pain, and pelvic pressure - ✔✔Cystitis A condition in which the urethra, or the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body, becomes inflamed and irritated - ✔✔Urethritis Inherited disorder characterized by numerous grape-like clusters of fluid-filled cysts in both kidneys - ✔✔Polycystic Kidney Disease Cysts enlarge the kidneys while compressing and eventually replacing the functional kidney tissue. The exact trigger is unknown. Prognosis and progression vary widely depending on the type. - ✔✔Polycystic Kidney Disease What are the 2 types of Polycystic Kidney Disease? - ✔✔Autosomal Dominant PKD, Autosomal Recessive PKD Mutation on the short arm of chromosomes 4 and 16. Occurs in both children and adults, but is much more common in adults. Symptoms often do not show up until middle age. - ✔✔Autosomal Dominant PKD Less common and more serious. Appears in infancy or childhood. Progresses rapidly, resulting in end- stage kidney failure and generally causing death in infancy or childhood. - ✔✔Autosomal Recessive PKD Complications of?: pyelonephritis, cyst rupture, retroperitoneal bleeding, renal failure, anemia, hypertension, and renal calculi - ✔✔Polycystic Kidney Disease
Bilateral inflammatory disorder of the glomeruli that typically follows a streptococcal infection. Affects men more than women. Leading cause of renal failure. Inflammatory changes impair the kidney's ability to excrete waste and excess fluid. May be acute or chronic. Nephrotic and nephritic syndromes are the most prevalent forms. - ✔✔Glomerulonephritis Loss of urinary control - ✔✔Urinary Incontinence Involuntary urination by a child after 4 - 5 years of age - ✔✔Enuresis Bed-wetting - ✔✔Nocturnal Enuresis Urinary incontinence resulting from a temporary condition - ✔✔Transient Incontinence Causes of?: delirium, infection, atrophic vaginitis, use of certain medications, psychological factors, high urine output, restricted mobility, fecal impaction, alcohol, and caffeine - ✔✔Transient Incontinence Loss of urine from pressure exerted on the bladder by coughing, sneezing, laughing, exercising, or lifting something heavy. - ✔✔Stress Incontinence Occurs when the sphincter muscle of the bladder is weakened. Contributing factors: pregnancy, childbirth, menopause, cystocele, prostate removal, obesity, and chronic coughing - ✔✔Stress Incontinence Sudden, intense urge to urinate, followed by an involuntary loss of urine - ✔✔Urge Incontinence Causes of?: Urinary tract infections, bladder irritants, bowel conditions, smoking, Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, injury, and nervous system damage. - ✔✔Urge Incontinence Urge incontinence with no known cause - ✔✔Overactive Bladder
Enlargement of the prostate - ✔✔Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Manifestations of?: Hesitancy (difficulty initiating a stream), decreased stream or dribbling, urinary retention, obstruction to flow, interruption of the stream, infection caused by retention - ✔✔Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Most common in men, particularly African Americans. Slow-growing tumor. Second leading cause of cancer deaths. The exact cause is unknown. As the tumor grows, the prostate impedes the urethra - ✔✔Prostate Cancer Risk factors of?: history of STIs, family history, high-fat diets, and androgen hormone replacement - ✔✔Prostate Cancer Manifestations of?: urinary difficulties, erectile dysfunctions, bloody semen, and hematuria - ✔✔Prostate Cancer Inflammation of the epididymis - ✔✔Epididymitis Causes of?: ascending bacterial infections or sexually transmitted infections, tuberculosis, and the antidysrhythmic medication amiodarone (Cordarone) - ✔✔Epididymitis Risk factors of?: being uncircumcised, recent surgey or a history of structural problems in the urinary tract, urinary catheterization, and sexual intercourse with more than one partner and not using condoms
- ✔✔Epididymitis Complications of?: abscesses, fistulas, infertility, testicular necrosis, and chronic epididymitis - ✔✔Epididymitis Manifestations of?: Indicators of infection; scrotal tenderness, erythema, and edema; penile discharge; bloody semen; painful ejaculation; dysuria; and groin pain - ✔✔Epididymitis
Fluid accumulation between the layers of the tunica vaginalis or along the spermatic cord. Can affect one or both testes - ✔✔Hydrocele Causes of?: congenital defect, inflammation, infection, trauma, and tumors - ✔✔Hydrocele Abnormal rotation of the testes on the spermatic cord - ✔✔Testicular Torsion Causes of?: trauma, but can also occur spontaneously (Reproductive system) - ✔✔Testicular Torsion Manifestations of?: sudden scrotal edema and pain - ✔✔Testicular Torsion Endometrium grows in areas outside the uterus. Most commonly grows in the fallopian tubes, ovaries, and peritoneum, but the tissue can grow anywhere in the body. The abnormal endometrial tissue continues to act as it normally would during menstruation. Blood becomes trapped and irritates the surrounding tissue. - ✔✔Endometriosis Complications of?: pain, cysts, scarring, adhesions, and infertility - ✔✔Endometriosis Manifestations of?: dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, pelvic pain, infertility, and pain during or after intercourse - ✔✔Endometriosis Descent of the uterus or cervix into the vagina - ✔✔Uterine Prolapse Causes of?: conditions that stretch or weaken the pelvic support - ✔✔Uterine Prolapse What degree? cervix has dropped into the vagina. - ✔✔First Degree What degree? cervix is apparent at the vaginal opening. - ✔✔Second Degree What degree?: cervix and uterus bulge through the vaginal opening. - ✔✔Third Degree
Manifestations of?: asymptomatic; continuous vaginal discharge; abnormal vaginal bleeding between menstruation, after intercourse, or after menopause; and menorrhagia. - ✔✔Cervical Cancer Infections that can be contracted through sexual contact. More than 30 different sexually transmissible bacteria, viruses, and parasites have been identified. Some can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth as well as through blood contact. Some of these are easily eradicated with appropriate treatment, whereas others remain for a lifetime. - ✔✔Sexually Transmitted Infection What are three type of STIs? - ✔✔Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis Caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, an intracellular parasite that requires a host cell to reproduce. The most commonly reported STI in the United States. Prevalence rates have been on a steady incline in the United States for the past 20 years. - ✔✔Chlamydia Can be transmitted through sexual contact and from mother to child during childbirth. Complications: neonatal conjunctivitis, PID, epididymitis, prostatitis, infertility, and ectopic pregnancy. Increases the risk for contracting other STIs - ✔✔Chlamydia Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, an aerobic bacterium with many drug-resistant strains. Rates have been declining but have started to increase again. Second most common STI. Rates are highest in men, American Indians and Alaskan natives, and those living in District of Columbia. - ✔✔Gonorrhea Transmissible through sexual contact and from mother to infant during childbirth. Complications: neonatal conjunctivitis, PID, epididymitis, prostatitis, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, arthritis, dermatitis, and endocarditis - ✔✔Gonorrhea Ulcerative infection caused by Treponema pallidum, a spirochete that requires a warm, moist environment to survive. Transmitted from skin or mucous membrane contact with chancres and from the mother to child through the placental barrier. Prevalence rates have remained constant for the last 50 years. Rates are highest in men, men who have sex with men (MSM), African Americans, and those living in District of Columbia. - ✔✔Syphilis How many stages are there in Syphilis? - ✔✔ 3 Stages
Painless chancres (usually one) form at the site about 2 - 3 weeks after infection and often go unnoticed and disappear about 4 - 6 weeks later, even without treatment. Bacteria become dormant, and no other symptoms are present. May not test positive, so testing should be repeated at a later date. Contagious during this stage. - ✔✔Primary Syphilis Occurs about 2 - 8 weeks after the first chancres form. Treatment in the primary stage can decrease the likelihood of developing this stage. Manifestations: generalized, nonpruritic, brown-red rash; malaise; fever; and patchy hair loss. Symptoms will often go away without treatment, and again, the bacteria become dormant. Will test positive (if untreated) and is contagious, especially with direct contact with the rash. - ✔✔Secondary Syphilis Begins when the secondary symptoms disappear and lasts 1 - 4 years. Can last for years as the infection spreads to the brain, nervous system, heart, skin, and bones. Complications: blindness, paralysis, dementia, cardiovascular disease, pathological fractures, and death. Will test positive (if untreated) and is only contagious during the early part of this stage - ✔✔Latent or Tertiary Syphilis Caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) - ✔✔Genital Herpes How many types are there of HSV? - ✔✔ 2 Types Occurs above the waist and manifests as a cold. - ✔✔HSV Type 1 Occurs below the waist. - ✔✔HSV Type 2 How many stages are there of Genital Herpes? - ✔✔ 4 Stages Begins at the actual time of infection and antibody development. May take 2 to 20 days to occur. Manifestations: asymptomatic, a painful lesion, malaise, low-grade fever, and groin lymph node enlargement - ✔✔Primary Herpes Genitalis
Acromegaly is caused by? - ✔✔Hyperpituitarism Increased renal water retention caused by excessive antidiuretic hormone - ✔✔Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Excessive prolactin that results in menstrual dysfunction and galactorrhea - ✔✔Hyperprolactinemia Excessive cortisol that results from the increased ACTH levels - ✔✔Cushing's Syndrom Hypermetabolic state caused by excessive thyroid hormones from increased TSH - ✔✔Hyperthyroidism The pituitary gland secretes excessive amounts of one or all of the pituitary hormones. Most commonly caused by tumors that secrete hormone or hormone-like substances. - ✔✔Hyperpituitarism Progressive disorder that can occur suddenly but usually develops slowly. Manifestations: headache, visual field loss or double vision, excessive sweating, hoarseness, galactorrhea, sleep apnea, carpal tunnel syndrome, joint pain and stiffness, muscle weakness, and paresthesia - ✔✔Hyperpituitarism Short stature caused by deficient levels of growth hormone, somatotropin, or somatotropin-releasing hormone - ✔✔Dwarfism Rare, complex condition in which the pituitary gland does not produce sufficient amounts of some or all of its hormones - ✔✔Hypopituitarism Causes: congenital defects, cerebral or pituitary trauma, autoimmune conditions, tuberculosis, pituitary tumors, hemochromatosis, histiocytosis X, sarcoidosis, and hypothalamic dysfunction - ✔✔Hypopituitarism Excessive fluid excretion in the kidneys caused by deficient antidiuretic hormone levels - ✔✔Diabetes Insipidus
Progressive disorder that can occur suddenly but usually develops slowly. Manifestations: fatigue, headache, cessation of menstruation, infertility (in women), decreased libido, low tolerance for stress, muscle weakness, nausea, constipation, weight loss or gain, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, cold sensitivity, visual disturbances, loss of body or facial hair, joint stiffness, hoarseness, facial puffiness, thirst, excess urination, hypotension, short stature, and delayed growth and development - ✔✔Hypopituitarism A condition in which the thyroid does not produce sufficient amounts of the thyroid hormones. Relatively common ( 1 out of 500 Americans has the condition). May be a result of hypothalamus, pituitary, or thyroid dysfunction. Risk factor: advancing age. Causes: autoimmune thyroiditis (also called Hashimoto's thyroiditis) and iatrogenic - ✔✔Hypothyroidism Manifestations: fatigue, sluggishness, increased sensitivity to cold, constipation, pale and dry skin, facial edema, hoarseness, hypercholesterolemia, unexplained weight gain, myalgia, arthralgia, muscle weakness, heavier than normal menstrual periods, brittle fingernails, hair loss or thinning, bradycardia, hypotension, constipation, depression, and goiter - ✔✔Hypothyroidism Rare and life-threatening advanced hypothyroidism. Manifestations include marked hypotension, respiratory depression, hypothermia, lethargy, and coma - ✔✔Myxedema Causes: excessive iodine, Graves' disease, nonmalignant thyroid tumors, thyroid inflammation, and taking large amounts of thyroid hormone replacement - ✔✔Hyperthyroidism Manifestations: sudden weight loss, tachycardia, hypertension, increased appetite, nervousness, anxiety or anxiety attacks, irritability, tremor (usually a fine trembling in the hands), diaphoresis, changes in menstrual patterns, increased sensitivity to heat, diarrhea, goiter, difficulty sleeping, and exophthalmos - ✔✔Hyperthyroidism Also called thyrotoxicosis. A sudden worsening of hyperthyroidism symptoms that may occur with infection or stress. Fever, decreased mental alertness, and abdominal pain may occur. Medical emergency - ✔✔Thyroid Crisis (Storm) Condition in which the parathyroid gland does not produce sufficient amounts of PTH. Causes: congenital defects (a lack of one or more of the four parathyroid glands) and damage (e.g., surgery,
