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Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory
Criminology is a study that is constantly changing based on the political, economic and spiritual concerns of the society. Many theories come to light and then fade away as the societal climate changes. Strain theory is one such theory that has been pushed aside; however, this theory has been given new life by recent developments in criminology. Robert Agnew developed a new theory, which he named the general strain theory, thus introducing a new perspective on a theory that was written off a few decades ago. General strain theory has defined measurements of strain, the major types of strain, the links between strain and crime, coping strategies to strain, the determinants of delinquent or nondelinquent behavior, and policy recommendations that are based on this theory. General strain theory can also be used to explain the difference in crime between groups, for example male versus female crime rates. While there is still much research that needs to be done on this broad theory, Robert Agnew’s general strain theory appears to be vast improvement over its theoretical predecessor.
Biographical Information
Robert Agnew was born on December 1, 1953, in Atlnatic City, New Jersey. He received a B.A. with highest honors and highest distinction in sociology from Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey. He continued his education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and received a M.A. in sociology. He was awarded his Ph.D. in 1980, and the title of his dissertation was "A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency." Since receiving his Ph.D., Robert Agnew has taught at Emory University, where he focuses on graduate and undergraduate classes that involve juvenile delinquency, criminology, and crime and deviant behavior (Agnew, 1997b:1).
Some of the most recent professional programs and community services that Robert Agnew has been involved in include the position of Associate Editor of Theoretical Criminology , serving on the board of advisors for the Not Even One Program at the Atlanta site, and serving on the program committee for the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. He was the first recipient of the "Award for Excellence in Teaching" in the division of the social sciences from Emory University in 1997. This is the second award for teaching that Robert Agnew has received; where as the first was awarded in 1993 as the "Outstanding Teacher" in the sociology department. He has edited two books and authored or co- authored over 40 articles. His work is generally related to crime and delinquency, social psychology, and methodology. More specifically, his work is focused on his general strain theory of crime (Agnew, 1997b:1-7).
The History of Stain Theory
Strain theory was developed from the work of Durkheim and Merton and taken from the theory of anomie. Durkheim focused on the decrease of societal restraint and the strain that resulted at the individual level, and Merton studied the cultural imbalance that exists between goal and the norms of the individuals of society. Anomie can be broken down into two levels. The first of these levels is the macroside of anomie, which is manifest in the inability of society to set limits on goals and regulate individual conduct. The microside of anomie, also known as strain theory, is focused on the reasons behind the increased likelihood of deviance that results from the breakdown of society. According to this microside of anomie, the decrease in societal regulations creates an increase pressure to commit deviant acts (Agnew and Passas, 1997:2-3).
Agnew and Passas (1997:4) addressed the similarities between the macrolevel of anomie and control theory but asserted that the microlevel theory of strain should be considered separate from control theory. Agnew (1992:48) also compared strain theory to control theory and social learning theory. The theories differ in the type of social relations that they stress and the motivations on which they are based. While control theory rests on the premise that the breakdown of society frees the individual to commit crime, strain theory is focused on the pressure that is placed on the individual to commit crime (Agnew, 1992:49). Social learning theory is based on the forces from a group that lead to a positive view of crime (Agnew, 1992:49). According to strain theory, individual deviance is caused as a result of negative treatment from others, and this results in anger and frustration (Agnew, 1997a:31). Control theory, however, is based on the absence of significant relationships with nondeviant others, and social learning theory is based on positive relationships with deviant others (Agnew, 1992:49).
The popularity of strain/anomie theory declined in the late 1960’s due to the lack of empirical evidence put forth by researchers and the political climate of the decade (Agnew and Passas, 1997:4-5). The lack of supporting data can be attributed to several flaws in the original research methods employed by the researchers (Agnew and Passas, 1997:5). Inappropriate methodology, oversimplification of theory, and a neglect of the previous revisions resulted in a body of work that misrepresented the original purpose of anomie/strain theory (Agnew and Passas, 1997:5-7). Along with these flaws, current theorists have argued that empirical data actually supports the theory (Agnew, Cullen, Burton, Evans, and Gregory 1996:700).
Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory
Robert Agnew’s revisions of the strain theory address many of the criticisms of the original strain theory. According to the original strain theory, an increase in aspirations and a decrease in expectations should lead to an increase in delinquency; however, this was not found to be the case (Agnew, 1985:152).
There are three major types of strain according to general strain theory. They are the failure to achieve positively valued goals, the loss of positive stimuli, and the presentation of negative stimuli. Each of these will be discussed separately.
Failure to achieve positively valued stimuli
The first strain results from an individual’s failure to achieve positively valued goals. Agnew (forthcoming) noted that there are three different types of goals for which members of the society strive. The first of these is money. Money is a cause of strain when it is not available to the individual through legitimate means (Agnew, forthcoming). Agnew (1994:425-426) found that monetary strain was related to crime in a limited fashion, and that the previous studies may not be accurately measuring all aspects of monetary goal blockage. The findings from this study do seem to confirm that delinquents desire to gain large amounts of money (Agnew, 1994:425).
Another type of positively valued goal is that of status and respect. This is an especially important factor in regard to masculine status. This type of status differs culturally, but in order for an individual to prove their masculinity, they may resort to crime to achieve that status. Traits that are associated with masculinity are often displayed through criminal behavior (Agnew, forthcoming).
Autonomy, the power over oneself, is the third type of goal that is valued in a society. Strain induced by autonomy mainly affects adolescents and the lower class because of their position in society. Agnew proposed that the need for autonomy can result in delinquency and crime, as the individual tried to assert autonomy, achieve autonomy, and relieve frustration against those who have denied the individual autonomy (Agnew, forthcoming).
These previously mentioned goals turn into strain when the individual is faced with certain disjunctions in their life. The first of these disjunctions is the one that is the focus of previous strain theories, the disjunction between aspirations and expectations. This is founded on the principle of culturally bound goals and values that are accepted by everyone but yet not available to everyone (Agnew, 1992:51). This idea of the American Dream then causes strain and frustration in the individual who cannot achieve this dream through legitimate means (Agnew, 1992:51). This theory has been criticized because it does not explain middle class crime, it only focuses monetary goals, social class is the only barrier that is considered, and it does not specify why some turn to deviance (Agnew, 1992:51). Recent research has found that this traditional view of strain theory is not as applicable to criminality as other theories such as control and differential association theory (Burton, Cullen, Evans, and Dunaway, 1994:231). Due to these problems, the general strain theory
continues to cite other sources of strain that can be applied to a broader aspect of an individual’s life.
Another source of strain due to goal blockage is the disjunction between expectations and actual achievements. This disjunction rests on the outcome of an individual’s behavior. Strain is increased when the actual achievements of an individual are less than that which the individual had expected (Agnew 1992:52).
The third type of disjunction occurs when the actual outcome that an individual faces is not the just/fair outcome that he/she felt was deserved. Individuals do not need to have a specific outcome in mind, but based on their input, they have an idea of what would be a fair outcome. This leaves room for social comparisons for individuals to judge their inputs and outcomes against those of others (Agnew, 1992:53-55).
The loss of positively valued stimuli
Agnew’s research in the stress literature led him to the discovery that the removal of positive stimuli can also cause strain. This loss could manifest itself in the form of a death or a broken relationship with a friend or romantic partner, or it could be a result of the theft of a valued object. According to Agnew, the strain that is felt by the individual die to the loss could lead the individual to delinquency as the individual attempts to prevent its loss, retrieve what was lost, or seek revenge on those who removed the positive stimuli (Agnew, 1992:57).
The presentation of negative stimuli
According to Agnew (1992:58), this type of strain had been largely left out of criminology. However, some research has been done on adolescent pain- avoidance behavior and the inability of juveniles to legally avoid noxious stimuli (Agnew, 1985:154). Some examples of negative stimuli that an adolescent might face are child abuse, neglect, adverse relations with parents and teachers, negative school experiences, adverse relations with peers, neighborhood problems, and homelessness (Agnew, 1992:58-59). Since its addition to general strain theory, research has been done in this area. In a study by Hoffmann and Miller (1998:106), it was found that negative life events that include such things as parental unemployment, deaths in the family, and illness impose a strong impact by increasing delinquent behavior in adolescents. This type of strain has also been applied outside the realm of youths. In an interesting study on corporate corruption, Keane (1993:304) found that corporations might violate regulations in order to escape from an adverse economic situation.
Links Between Strain and Crime
feelings rather than trying to alter the event itself. Some examples are exercise and relaxation methods (Agnew, 1992:70).
Determinants of Delinquent or Nondelinquent Behavior
There are two different categories of coping mechanisms, criminal and non- criminal behaviors. General strain theory includes constraints to nondelinquent behavior, as well as factors that may affect an individual’s disposition to delinquent behavior. In this way it is possible to predict the adaptations, delinquent or nondelinquent, that will be chosen (Agnew, 1992:70).
The choices that individuals have available to them are confined by several factors. If the initial goals and values of a person are high and they have few alternative goals to fall back on, then the person may be more prone to committing delinquent acts. Also, individuals may have coping resources available through variables such as temperament, self-esteem, and creativity, which will make them less likely to participate in delinquent or criminal acts. Social supports also play a large role in determining whether an individual will commit delinquent acts. Those with greater conventional social supports will be less likely to participate in delinquency. Also, those individuals with a greater level of social control and those who lack the means to committing crime may be less inclined to be delinquent. The larger social environment will also have an effect on the individual’s choice to participate in crime. Society influences individuals’ behaviors by indicating the importance that should be placed on certain goals and the determination of what is adverse and what is not. Also, society deems which adverse situations the individual can cognitively minimize and what other ways of coping are available to the individual. All of these factors can determine whether strain will result in delinquent or nondelinquent coping strategies (Agnew, 1992:71-73).
Along with these constraints on coping, individual dispositions toward delinquency also control the strategies that are chosen by the individual. Temperamental variables and the past reinforcement of delinquent behavior can have an effect on the participation in delinquency. Another key factor in this theory is the individual’s association with delinquent peers. These factors will help determine the impact that strain will have on individuals and the likelihood that they will turn to crime to address their strain (Agnew, 1992:73- 74).
Male Versus Female Strain and Crime
General strain theory can be used to explain the difference in crime between larger groups, such as the difference in crime rates between communities and the high rate of crime in adolescents (Agnew, forthcoming). General strain theory has also been applied in criminology to explain the high rate of crime among males as opposed to females. Agnew and Broidy (1997:275) used this
theory to explain the increased rate of crime among males and the reason why females commit crime.
In an attempt to explain the high rate of male delinquency as compared to female delinquency, Agnew and Broidy analyzed the gender differences between the perception of strain and the responses to strain. The first area that was explored was the amount of strain that each gender experiences. According to stress research that Agnew and Broidy complied, females tend to experience as much or more strain than males. Also, females tend to be higher in subjective strain as well. That females experience more strain than males does not explain the higher rate of male delinquency according to the general strain theory. Due to this, Agnew and Broidy explored further differences in male and female strain (Agnew and Broidy, 1997,275-278).
Since females experience more strain and commit less crime, Agnew and Broidy investigated the different types of strain that males and females experience. Their findings are listed in Table 1. There was found to be a difference in the types of strain
Table 1: Sex differences in types of strain (Agnew and Broidy, 1997:278-281)
Females Males
Concerned with creating and maintaining close bonds and relationships with others – thus lower rates of property and violent crime
Concerned with material success – thus higher rates of property and violent crime
Face negative treatment, such as discrimination, high demands from family, and restricted behavior
Face more conflict with peers and are likely to be the victims of crime
Failure to achieve goals may lead to self-destructive behavior
Failure to achieve goals may lead to property and violent crime
experienced between genders, and this helped explain the gender difference in the types of crimes that are committed (Agnew and Broidy, 1997:281).
Agnew and Broidy next hypothesized that there may be differences not only in the types of strain, but in the emotional response to strain as well. The gender differences are discussed in Table 2. Since Agnew and Broidy found that there were sex differences
Table 2: Sex differences in emotional response to strain (Agnew and Broidy, 1997:281-283)
loss of positive stimuli, females may face barriers to social settings due to social discrimination. Females are also the targets of sexual, emotional, and physical abuse, which is considered to be negative stimuli. These types of strain may lead to the female acting out criminally. Female criminals seem to differ from female non-criminals in that they have an increased opportunity for crime, are lower in social control, and have delinquent peers. Agnew and Broidy found that not only can general strain theory explain the higher rate of male crime, but it can also explain why females would participate in crime as well (Agnew and Broidy, 1997:288-294).
Policy Recommendations
General strain theory is a broad theory that can be applied to many different aspects of delinquency. One of these applications focuses on the programs that will prevent crime. Agnew (1995a:48) proposed several different programs to reduce delinquency which have shown success after being implemented. These programs focus on the root of strain theory, which is negative treatment by others (Agnew, 1995a:48). Family-based programs are designed to teach the members how to solve problems in a constructive manner, and parents are taught how to effectively discipline their children (Agnew, 1995a:48-50). This will reduce the amount of negative emotions that result from conflict in the family and will decrease the amount of strain in the home.
School is also a source of strain for many adolescents. School-based programs seek to improve relations in and between school. Along with focusing on relationships, these programs also help improve the student’s performance, which can be a major source of strain for the adolescent (Agnew, 1995a:50-51).
Peer based programs seek to reduce the amount of strain that an adolescent feels as a result of relationships with peers. Relationships with peers can be negative when the peers are delinquent or when they are physically or verbally abusive toward other peers. Most of these programs occur in the school setting where it can have the greatest impact on the greatest number of adolescents (Agnew, 1995a:53-54).
Since it is unrealistic to think that it is possible to completely eliminate strain by preventing people from treating one another badly, policies must also instruct the adolescents to cope with strain. Increased social support assists the adolescent in dealing with particular problems. Behavioral, emotional, and cognitive support is provided through these support systems. The goal of these programs is to provide the adolescent with an individual who will commit to helping the adolescent with problem and who will teach them how to cope on their own (Agnew, 1995a:56-59).
Individuals must also be taught how to cope without the help of others. These types of programs involve teaching the adolescent to be assertive rather than
aggressive. It can also involve social skill and problem-solving training. Anger control programs can teach the individual how to effectively cope with the emotions that result from strain (Agnew, 1995a:59-61).
Agnew summarized four recommendations from general strain theory that should lead to a decrease in delinquency. The first of these is to reduce the negative relationships of the youth’s social environment. Second, it is necessary to change the way that the youth responds to their environment and decrease the chance that they will produce negative reactions from others. Increased social support should be made available to help the individual cope with the strain, and, lastly, the adolescent should be taught how to cope with the strain by himself/herself (Agnew, 1995a:64).
Critiques
Robert Agnew’s general strain theory has come on the scene of criminology and brought a renewed interest in the effect of strain on crime. Since this is a relatively new theory that is very broad in its scope, there is not much data to support or refute it. Due to the fact that it is such a broad theory, it is not possible to test it all at once, and it must be broken down into its component parts (Agnew, 1992:75). Agnew (1992:75) also noted that it is not a fully developed alternative to other theories, since it does not extend into the macrosocial world and does not take into account factors such as strain caused by non-social means. Agnew (1992:75) emphasized that "the general strain theory then, is presented as a foundation on which to build."
More research is needed in most every area, but certain goals can be made. In the way of explaining group differences in crime, it is necessary to determine how much and what types of strain are experienced and how and why groups cope with the strain in distinctive ways (Agnew and Broidy, 1997:296). At the macrosocial level, opportunity structures and how this effects the individual need to be analyzed (Agnew, 1997:45). Agnew and Passas (1997:17) noted that a challenge for researchers would be to determine which types of strain lead to crime and why the relationship exists. These future research areas have the potential to provide significant support to the general strain theory.
References:
A. Books and Articles
Agnew, Robert. (1985). A revised strain theory of delinquency. Social forces. 64 (1), 151-167.
Agnew, Robert. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology. 30 (1), 47-87.
Keane, Carl. (1993). The impact of financial performance on frequency of corporate crime: a latent variable test of strain theory. Canadian journal of criminology. 35 (3), 293-308.
B. Web Sites
Agnew, Robert. (1997b). Vitae. [Online]. Available: http://www.emory.edu/SOC/bagnew/cv_agnew.html
