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ROLE OF TRACE MINERALS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION
What Do I Need to Know About Trace Minerals for Beef and Dairy Cattle, Horses, Sheep and Goats?
Connie K. Larson, Ph.D. Research Nutritionist, Zinpro Corporation Eden Praire, MN 55344
Presented at the 2005 Nutrition Conference sponsored by Department of Animal Science, UT Extension and University Professional and Personal Development The University of Tennessee.
Introduction
The role of trace minerals in animal production is an area of strong interest for producers, feed manufactures, veterinarians and scientists. Adequate trace mineral intake and absorption is required for a variety of metabolic functions including immune response to pathogenic challenge, reproduction and growth. Mineral supplementation strategies quickly become complex because differences in trace mineral status of all livestock and avian species is critical in order to obtain optimum production in modern animal production systems. Subclinical or marginal deficiencies may be a larger problem than acute mineral deficiency because specific clinical symptoms are not evident to allow the producer to recognize the deficiency; however, animals continue to grow and reproduce but at a reduced rate. As animal trace mineral status declines immunity and enzyme functions are compromised first, followed by a reduction in maximum growth and fertility, and finally normal growth and fertility decrease prior to evidence of clinical deficiency (Figure 1; Fraker, 1983; Wikse 1992). In order to maintain animals in adequate trace mineral status, balanced intake and absorption are necessary.
Figure 1. Effect of declining trace mineral status on animal performance
Immunity & Enzyme Function
Normal Growth/Fertility Clinical Signs
Subclinical Clinical
Mineral Status
Adequate Maximum Growth/Fertility
Trace Mineral Function To better understand the role of trace minerals in animal production it is important to recognize that trace elements are functional components of numerous metabolic events. Trace mineral functions can be described by four broad categories (Underwood and Suttle, 1999): structural, physiological, catalytic and regulatory. Structural function refers to minerals forming structural components of body organs and tissue. An example is the contribution of zinc to molecular and membrane stability. Physiological function occurs when minerals in body fluids and tissues act as electrolytes to maintain osmotic pressure, acid base balance, and membrane permeability. Catalytic function is probably the largest category for trace minerals as it refers to catalytic role of metalloenzymes in enzyme and hormone systems. Trace elements serve as structural components of metalloenzymes. Upon removal of the trace element or lack of adequate trace mineral levels the enzyme activity is lost. There are numerous metalloenzymes that are required for a wide range of metabolic activities such as energy production, protein digestion, cell replication, antioxidant activity and wound healing. Regulatory function is exemplified by the role of zinc to influence transcription and iodine serving as a constituent of thyroxine, a hormone associated with thyroid function and energy metabolism.
The importance of enzyme function as it relates to animal performance was illustrated by zinc depletion-repletion trials reported by Engle et al. (1998). Zinc was shown to have a critical role in proteolytic enzyme systems associated with muscle protein turnover. Muscle protein accretion was shown to decrease when supplemental zinc was removed from the basal forage diet for 21 days; however,
Figure 2. Effect of zinc depletion on feed efficiency in beef calves
y (^) y y
z z z
0.
0.
0.
0.
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Gain/Feed
Days after feeding +Zn and –Zn diets yz (^) Means at single time points lacking a common superscript letter differ (P<.05)
Control, 23 ppm No Added Zn
important to have animals in adequate status prior to and over-lapping periods of greatest risk.
Animal Health Health concerns are universal in production across all livestock and avian species. Medication costs, lost performance in sick animals and death loss can rapidly reduce profitability in an operation. The immune system is a highly developed mechanism that utilizes a diverse cell population to protect its host against invasion of bacteria, fungi, parasite and viruses. Trace minerals that have been identified as important for normal immune function and disease resistance include zinc, iron, copper, manganese and selenium (Fletcher et al. , 1988). A deficiency in one or more of these elements can compromise immunocompetence of an animal (Beisel, 1982; Suttle and Jones, 1989). The first level of defense in the immune system is the skin. Zinc and manganese are key elements for maintaining epithelial tissue integrity. In broiler studies, the addition zinc and manganese amino acid complexes to the diet resulted in fewer skin tears and increased percentage of acceptable paws. Both of these factors contribute to increased carcass value of the broilers. As we consider epithelial tissue, we must also recognize that the lining of the respiratory tract, lungs, gastro intestinal tract and reproduction tract are also epithelial tissue. Maintaining the integrity and health of the tissue in these areas can result in a reduction of infiltration by pathogens.
In order to respond immunologically, whether it be to a foreign antigen that has been given as in a vaccine or one from the production environment, an animal needs to have an immune system that is responsive and capable of meeting any challenge. This defense system must attempt to eliminate these harmful challenges or antigens. Specific cells and proteins are produced to neutralize or destroy these specific antigens. This is the “acquired immune response” in action. The immune system can be divided into two categories: 1) specific immunity referred to as cell-mediated and humoral, or 2) nonspecific immunity action of phagocytes, macrophages and polymorphonuclear neutrophils.
Copper functions in the immune system through the following: energy production, neutrophil production and activity, antioxidant enzyme production, development of antibodies and lymphocyte replication (Niederman et al., 1994; Nockels, 1994). The importance of copper for maintaining the functions of the immune system has been demonstrated in several studies. Viral and bacterial challenges have been shown to increase serum ceruloplasmin and plasma copper in copper-repleted cattle indicating a major protective role for copper in infectious diseases (Stable et al., 1993). Low copper status has resulted in decreased humoral and cell-mediated immunity (Jones and Suttle, 1981a and 1981b; Xin et al., 1991 Gengelback et al, 1997), as well as decreased neutrophil bactericidal capability in steers. In vitro activities of T lymphocytes and neutrophils isolated from adult male rats chronically fed a diet marginally low in copper were significantly suppressed without marked alterations in traditional indicators of copper status (Hopkins and Failla, 1995). Lower than normal tissue reserves in the fetal calf as a result of deficiency in the dam can impair development and growth (Abdelrahman and Kincaid, 1993). Increased incidence of scours, occurrence of abomasal ulcers shortly after birth and respiratory problems have
both been attributed to inadequate copper levels in newborn calves (Naylor et al., 1989; Smart et al., 1986).
Zinc functions in the immune system through energy production, protein synthesis, stabilization of membranes against bacterial endotoxins, antioxidant enzyme production, and maintenance of lymphocyte replication and antibody production (Nockels, 1994; Kidd, 1996). Zinc deficiency has been shown to have an important impact on immunity (Gershwin et al., 1985; Droke and Spears, 1993). Decreased cellular immunity, lowered antibody response and disrupted growth of T-dependent tissue have resulted from inadequate intake of zinc (Fletcher et al., 1988). Zinc supplementation for stressed cattle enhanced recovery rate in infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus-stressed cattle (Chirase et al., 1991). Zinc methionine has also been shown to increase antibody titer against bovine herpesvirsu- (Spears et al., 1991). Supplementing zinc to dairy cows during lactation resulted in fewer infections of mammary gland (Spain et al., 1993). North Carolina Researchers (Ferket and Qureshi, 1992) showed the one major cause in reducing early mortality of turkey poults was increasing the zinc and manganese levels and varying these sources in their diet. Adding complexed trace minerals to the lower level of inorganic supplementation improved responses compared to higher levels of inorganic trace minerals. Adding additional complexed trace minerals significantly increased both antibody titer levels and macrophage killing ability over the highest level of inorganic trace mineral supplementation.
Reproduction Reproductive performance of cattle may be compromised if zinc, copper, or manganese status is in the marginal to deficient range. Common copper deficiency symptoms in cattle include delayed or suppressed estrus, decreased conception, infertility and embryo death (Phillippo et al., 1987; Corah and Ives, 1991). Inadequate zinc levels have been associated with decreased fertility, abnormal estrus, abortion, and altered myometrial contractibility with prolonged labor (Maas, 1987; Duffy et al., 1977). Manganese deficiency in cows results in suppression of conception rates, delayed estrus in post-partum females and young prepuberal heifers, infertility, abortion, immature ovaries and dystocia (Brown and Casillas, 1986; Maas, 1987; Corah and Ives, 1991).
Feeding complexed trace minerals to beef and dairy cows enhances reproductive performance early in the breeding season. Research results in beef cattle indicate that first- calf heifers have confirmed pregnancies 10 d earlier (Swenson et al., 1998), a 17 to 35% improvement in AI conception rates (Spears and Kegley, 1991; Stanton et al., 1999) and an increase in number of ova ovulated per heifer (6.3 versus 2.8; Ansotegui et al., 1999) when females fed complexed trace minerals were compared to those fed iso-sulfate forms. Strategic complex trace mineral supplementation in beef cattle targets 60 d pre-calving through 80 d post-calving.
Summarized dairy data illustrates a 15 d reduction in open days and an 8 d reduction in days to first service. Dairy producers can benefit from year round complexed trace mineral supplementation due to additional effects such as improved claw integrity, enhanced milk production and reduced somatic cell counts. Improving reproductive performance of beef and
(200-250 ppm) to enhance growth in the nursery. In a trial evaluating levels of copper sulfate and copper lysine, pigs fed 100 ppm copper lysine gained more weight and consumed more feed than those fed 250 ppm copper sulfate (Coffey et al, 1994). Feeding lower levels will also reduce the total amount of mineral excreted in the feces. In a study evaluating copper metabolism in growing calves, retention was improved when copper complex was the sole source of supplemental copper or blended with sulfate source and compared to copper sulfate alone.
In the poultry industry, the actual value of increasing zinc level to impact production performance has been fairly well identified as illustrated in Figure 3. It is evident that once supplemental zinc levels exceed 100 ppm there is a plateau in performance. However, research has shown than when a complexed zinc form is added above that 100 ppm zinc sulfate, an increase in performance is measured (Figure 4). This formulation strategy supports the practice of blending organic complexed trace minerals with sulfate form to strive for optimum production in all livestock and avian species. As environmental issues impose restrictions it may become necessary to lower supplemental trace mineral levels and adjust proportions of inorganic to organic in order to maintain optimum performance and profitability.
Figure 3. Influence of increasing zinc levels on broiler performance
Broiler Performance
ZnSO 4 Level (ppm Zn)
0 50 100 150 200
Figure 4. Influence of additional complexed zinc on broiler performance
Another consideration for formulations is differences among the species for trace mineral upper safe limits. Differences are great for copper than the other trace elements. It is widely recognized that copper becomes toxic to sheep at a lower level than for cattle. Goats have a more similar copper tolerance to cattle than sheep. Horses have an even greater tolerance to high copper levels than cattle. However, in livestock that are more tolerant, more copper does not always equate to improved performance. Feeding high copper levels over time increases the amount of copper stored in the liver. The risk of high liver copper levels is that in the event of stress or a bacterial infection, copper is quickly mobilized out of the liver into the blood. High copper levels in the blood result in a hemolytic crisis that can be fatal to the animal.
Summary
Trace elements are required for numerous metabolic functions in livestock, and optimal production and performance require adequate intake of balanced trace minerals. As trace mineral status of the animal declines from adequate to marginal, immunity and enzyme function are compromised followed by the loss of performance and reproduction. Animals in a subclinical or marginal deficiency status are often difficult to identify; however, changes in a trace mineral program can result in improved production. Immunity, growth and reproduction are influenced by trace minerals. Formulation strategies should account for mineral forms, levels and for possible synergistic combinations such as zinc to copper ratios. Trace mineral nutrition continues to be an area of interest for research and production applications.
Broiler Performance
ZnSO 4 Level (ppm Zn)
0 50 100 150 200
Complex
Inorganic
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