Introduction
From the 16th to the 20th century, Muslim societies transitioned from medieval empires to modern
nation-states, facing European colonial domination before achieving independence. Once thriving
with vast empires and rich civilizations, Islam's influence was disrupted by European expansion,
which shifted the global balance of power. By the 19th century, much of the Muslim world was under
European control, exposing its political and military weaknesses and challenging Islamic authority.
This period of colonization spurred the emergence of modern Islamic thought as Muslim intellectuals
grappled with the realities of European dominance and modernity.1
1. Sir Muhammad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal (commonly known as Allama Iqbal) was a poet, religious philosopher, political
activist, and advocate for autonomy for Muslim-majority provinces in British India, but he cannot be
considered the main architect of Pakistan. Concerned with the declining status of Indian Muslims
under British rule, he addressed these issues in his 1930 Allahabad speech, often linked to the idea of
Pakistan. However, he never clearly endorsed the partition of British India. While his role in Pakistan's
formation was indirect, he voiced the aspirations of Muslim minorities seeking a separate socio-
political space. A towering figure in Islamic modernism, his works remain influential and widely
studied in both India and Pakistan.2
1.1. Early Life and Education
Sir Mohammad Iqbal (November 9, 1877 – April 21, 1938) was born in Sialkot, British India (now in
Pakistan). His ancestors were Kashmiri Pandits who later converted to Islam. He began his education
at Scotch Mission College (now Mayo College) in Sialkot before moving to Lahore, where he pursued
studies in English literature, Arabic, and philosophy at Government College. Seeking advanced
education, he travelled to London, where he qualified for the Bar at Lincoln’s Inn and enrolled as an
undergraduate at Trinity College, Cambridge.3Due to his intellectual and political engagements in
multiple activities, Iqbal cannot be compartmentalised into a single category. He was a poet,
philosopher, and preached Islamic values to his followers. For him all three are engaged with
questions about the universe and man’s place in it. For him, philosophy is purely rational, free, and
critical; it questions assumptions which are uncritically accepted in religion.4
1.2. Evolution in Iqbal Philosophy
His productive life can be divided into two phases: pre-1908 and post 1908. In the early part of his
life, until Iqbal went to Cambridge in 1905, his poetry was imbued with a burning passion for Indian
nationalism, and its heterogeneous culture. During this phase, he wrote Taranah-e-Hind (Saare-jehan
se accha Hindustan Hamara). In 1904 this song of India he recited at the Young Men’s Indian
Association in Lahore at the request of Lala Hardyal. It extols the glories of his vision about
Hindustan.5 But after his return from Europe, in 1908, Iqbal was a changed man. He acquired a new
1 Tauseef Ahmad Parray, “Islamic Modernist and Reformist Thought: A Study of the Contribution of Sir Sayyid
and Muhammad Iqbal,” World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization 1, no. 2 (2011): 79.
2 Amit Ranjan, “Mohammad Iqbal: Appraisal of His Writings on Islam and Partition of India,” Journal of Punjab
Studies 21 (2014): 19
3 Masood A. Raja, “Mohammad Iqbal: Islam, West and the Quest for a Modern Muslim Identity,” The
International Journal of the Asian Philosophical Association 1, no. 1 (2008): 37–49.
4 Mohammad Khalid Masud, “Iqbal’s Approach to Islamic Theology of Modernity,” Al-Hikmat 27 (2007): 1–36,
accessed December 3, 2024, http://www.pu.edu.pk.
5 V. N. Datta, “Iqbal, Jinnah and India’s Partition: An Intimate Relationship,” Economic and Political Weekly,
December 14, 2002, 5033–5038.
