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Social Research and Methods Ch 1-
To think in a Scientific way about our questions we need to consider.... - Topic: What do I want to learn about? Hypothesis: What do I think is true? Literature review: What proof/evidence is there about my topic? Objectivity:How ok am I with being wrong about what I think is true? Epistemology - The science of knowing, investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion, it questions what knowledge is & how it is acquired. 4 Types of Knowledge -
- Tradition
- Experience
- Authority
- Scientific Experience: Seeing is Believing and it's limitations -
- People aren't always good observers Social location (age, gender, race, SES) affect our interpretations
- People tend to over-generalize (based on too few people) & selectively observe (focus on 'deviant case')
- 'Gamblers fallacy' (I've been on a winning streak so I will lose soon, I'm on a losing streak so I will win soon) illogical reasoning
- May have a vested interest in seeing things in a way that benefit them Scientific Solutions to Errors in Experience - Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions:
- Inaccurate Observations -Measurement devices offer accuracy. 2)Overgeneralizations -Large, Representative samples are a safeguard against overgeneralization. -Replication - Repeating a research study to test and either confirm or question the findings of an earlier study. Authority - -We often benefit from knowledge from those in authority. Limitations: -We still can not blindly accept this type of information
-Sometimes authorities are still incorrect in their own field & sometimes they speak outside their area of expertise Scientific Method - -Empirical: Based on direct observation of reality (not value judgments) -Theoretical: Theory is used to organize facts & predict future occurrences -Systematic & can be replicated *Researchers seek systematic evidence to support their ideas. Theory - A systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life (too complex & abstract to evaluate in 1 study) --Social regularities represent probabilistic patterns -Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief --Social theory has to do with what is, not with what should be. --Science can NOT answer questions about social values. Scientific Thought - -For a scientist to accept the reality of something they haven't experienced, assertions must be both logical & empirical -Bias is controlled by research techniques and the peer review process Social Science Aims to: - -Predict social phenomena -Understand & Explain Social Regularities The goal of research is to - Be ACCURATE. -Not to prove that our ideas are right -Not to be overly dramatic -Researchers don't always understand what the results of their research mean which suggests further study is needed The Traditional Model of Science starts with - Theory. -Moves to Hypothesis -Then Observation -& Conclusions The Deductive Research Process: -
- Pick a Topic & Review the Literature
- From a Theory Create a Hypothesis --Operationalize Variables
Types of Methodology -
- Experiments (Quantitative) --Test hypotheses by controlling an I.V. & observing Δ in D.V.
- Surveys (Quantitative, close-ended qs; Qualitative, open-ended qs) --Get data about Rs by asking them questions
- Field Research (Qualitative) --Gain data by systematic observation of people
- Unobtrusive Research Methods (Qualitative or Quantitative; depends on how the sample was collected) --Data collected by analysis of media or datasets
- Evaluation Research (Quantitative or Qualitative; depends on the data collected) --Assess if a social program reaches its goals Qualitative Methods - -Smaller sample size -In-depth information -Detailed data -Uni variate Statistics Quantitative Methods - -Larger Sample Size -Broad understandings -Generalizable -Univariate Statistics -Bivariate & Multivariate Statistics -Inferential Statistics Data Gathering - -Actually implementing the research design methodology to gather DATA -The big issue is how to identify your sample -Coding: --Since statistics are mathematical calculations, answers need to be converted into numbers Analysis - -Once the data is collected, then it is possible to test if the hypotheses are correct -Patterns in aggregate data may be identified -Analysis typically involves 2 parts: (1.) Some type of visual representation (charts, graphs, tables) (2.) Written summary of findings -Empirical Generalizations: --Review the research goals & main findings in terms of patterns --Findings are tied to a theory --Limitations of the research & design flaws are discussed ---No research is perfect
---Nothing is indisputably proven -Relate conclusions to future theory -Make suggestions for future research Inductive Research - -Starts with Observation --Then moves to form a theory --(Inductive Research may not even start with a specific research question) Inductive Theory Construction - -Observing aspects of social life and seeking to discover patterns that may point to relatively universal principles. --Also referred to as Grounded Theory --Field Research (Observations) -Theories are developed from analysis of data Ethics in Social Research - -Ethical Responsibility to Science --Truthfulness, accuracy -Ethical Responsibility to Participants <IRB/HSRC> --Protect R's dignity & well-being -Ethical Responsibility to Society --Compliance with the law -Problems with Ethical Responsibilities --Deception --Questionable informed consent --Conflicts of Interest Responsibility to science - -Objectivity --Weber (1925): sociology needs to be unencumbered by personal values if it is to make a special contribution to society. -Analysis and Reporting --Ethical obligation to colleagues in the scientific community. --All results must be reported (positive and negative). --All limitations must be admitted. Responsibility to participants - -Institutional Review Boards -Informed Consent --Study information provided --Voluntary --Confidential/Anonymous
4.) Help to build public support for research if people can trust the quality and integrity of research. 5.) Promote moral and social values, such as social responsibility. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients. Politics in perspective - 1.) Science is not untouched by politics. 2.) Science does proceed in the midst of political controversy and hostility. 3.) An awareness of ideological considerations enriches the study and practice of social research methods. 4.) Whereas researchers should not let their own values interfere with the quality and honesty of the research, this does not mean that researchers cannot or should not participate in public debates. There are 3 General Purposes of Social Research: - 1.) Exploration 2.) Description 3.) Explanation Exploration - -Used when there is a Lack of Information about a topic -Typified by gathering large amounts of unstructured information in order to piece together a preliminary understanding of a subject -Common when considering type of policy change -Also used when creating Grounded Theory Exploratory Studies are most typically done for three purposes: - 1.) to satisfy the researcher's curiosity and desire for better understanding. 2.) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. 3.) to develop the methods to be employed in any subsequent study. Description - -Studies are typically concerned with Counting or Documenting information. -U.S. Census is an example of descriptive research. Explanation - -Concerned with answering Why or How -Frequently associated with establishing causal connection between variables -Frequently requires establishing hypotheses or cause/effect relationships Causality- 3 Criteria -
- ) Criterion of Empirical Association 2.) Criterion of Time Order Relationship
3.) Criterion of Non-spurious Relationship Criterion of Empirical Association - -Argues that if there is going to be a causal relationship between 2 variables, then a change in one variable (independent) has to be associated with a change in the other (dependent). -Unless a statistical correlation exists, we can NOT say a causal relationship exists Correlation - a statistical technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related. For example, height and weight are related; taller people tend to be heavier than shorter people. While people of the same height vary in weight, nonetheless, the average weight of people 5'5'' is less than the average weight of people 5'6'', etc. Criterion of Time Order Relationship - -The cause (independent variable) has to clearly precede, occur before, the effect (dependent variable) --Ex. Does one's gender affect one's attitude about legalization of marijuana or does one's attitude about legalization of marijuana determine one's gender? --Ex. Does drug use lead to one becoming homeless or did becoming homeless lead one to use drugs? (complex) --Is Suburbanization a result of crime or a cause of crime? Criterion of Non-spurious Relationship - -Showing that the observed relationship between two variables is not due to or caused by a third variable. -If researchers can demonstrate that other variables may be causing the observed relationship, then causality can not be established. Ecological Fallacy: - occurs when researchers draw conclusions about individuals when they really are studying groups. Ex. Math scores for one classroom was found to have the highest average score in the district. Later you meet one of the kids from that class and think "he must be a math whiz." Just because he comes from the class with the highest average doesn't mean that he is automatically a high-scorer in math. He could be the lowest math scorer in a class that otherwise consists of math geniuses! Time Dimensions: - 1.) Cross-Sectional Research 2.) Longitudinal Research --Trend Studies --Cohort Studies --Panel Studies
(e.g., dollars, degrees, pounds) Ordinal level - ranked categories. (e.g., socio-economic status, preference topics) Nominal level - involves naming or labeling. (e.g., gender, political party, mode of adaptation, category of offense) Interval-Ratio Data - 1.) Equal Intervals Between Points on a Mathematical Scale ex. Fahrenheit & Celsius temperature scales 2.) Ratio Data Has an Absolute Zero Point --Absence of the Quantity being Measured ---ex. length, hours worked, speed, re-arrests 3.) Continuous: Infinite # Values Between Units 4.) Statistics: All Types Ordinal Data - 1.) Categories can be Ranked from High to Low --ex. socioeconomic status, teams in a league 2.) Distance Between Scores is Not Precise 3.) Discrete: No Values Between Units 4.) Statistics: --Same as Nominal (Counting) + --Statements of "Greater than" & "Less than" All Scales are Ordinal and take into consideration the intensity of the variable being measured. 2 types of Scales: - 1.) Likert Scale 2.) Bogardus Social Distance Scale Likert Scale - -Used to determine the relative intensity of different items. -a five (or seven) point scale which is used to allow the individual to express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement. Bogardus Social Distance Scale - A measurement technique for determining the willingness of people to participate in social relations - of varying degrees of closeness - with other kinds of people.
Nominal Data - 1.) Categories are Not Numerical --ex. gender, zip code, race, country 2.) Does Not form a Mathematical Scale 3.) Discrete: No Values Between Units 4.) Statistics: --Count # in each Category --Compare Relative Size of Categories There are three main criteria for nomothetic casual relationships in social research: - 1.) the variables must be correlated. 2.) the cause takes place before the effect. 3.) the variables are nonspurious. Validity - Does a measurement really measure what the researcher thinks it is measuring? --Include measurements already proven to be valid. Reliability - How well researchers can depend on the measure to produce consistent results. Inter-rater reliability - this technique involves having more than one researcher observe and code people, events, or environments --Useful when interpreting the meaning of the respondents behavior Paradigm - a fundamental model or scheme that organizes our view of something. Conflict Paradigm - focuses on the attempt of one person or group to dominate others and to avoid being dominated. Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm - examines how shared meanings and social patterns are developed in the course of social interactions. Structural Functionalist Paradigm - seeks to discover what functions the many elements of society perform for the whole system-for example, the functions of mothers, labor unions, and radio talk shows. Spurious Relationship - a coincidental correlation between two variables, shown to be causes by some third variable. Reductionism - a fault of some researchers: a strict limitation (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study.
may stem from religious, political, and pragmatic sources among others. may vary from one social research community to another and from one point in time to another. The primary ETHICAL research issue raised by the Milgram study was: - the effects of the methods on the research participants When names are removed from questionnaires and are replaced with identification numbers so that only the researcher can later link a response to a particular name, the researcher should tell the respondent that the information is: - confidential If we can establish that variable X comes before variable Q in time, then we can say: - variable Q is not a cause of variable X There is a strong correlation between the number of firefighters that show up at a fire and the amount of damage produced by the fire. The size of the fire influences both the number of firefighters and the amount of damage. This illustrates that the relationship between the number of firefighters and the amount of damage is: - caused by a third factor LaToya is conducting a study where she intends to follow a random selection of teenagers in the 12th grade over a five year period. Each year she will randomly sample 500 individuals from a total of 50 high schools. What form of research is she performing? - cohort study A measurement of personality that produces observable, correct results, but that are not consistent would be considered - valid, but not reliable The following items measure the extent to which Americans are willing to associate with extraterrestrials. 1.It's OK if my child marries an extraterrestrial. 2.It's OK to have an extraterrestrial for a friend. 3.It's OK to have an extraterrestrial living on the block. 4.It's OK to have an extraterrestrial living in my state. These items illustrate a: - Bogardus social distance scale Which of the following is a nominal variable? - gender
