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Methods of Data Collection:
UNIT 8 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: Quantitative and Qualitative
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE*
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Methods of Data Collection
8.2.1 Quantitative Methods of Data Collection 8.2.1.1 Quantitative Survey Method 8.2.1.2 Sociometry 8.2.1.3 Attitude Scales (Rating Scales) 8.2.1.4 Mechanical Observation 8.2.2 Qualitative Methods of Data Collection 8.2.2.1 Projective Techniques 8.2.2.2 Observation Method 8.2.2.3 Case Study Method 8.2.2.4 Ethnography 8.2.2.5 Grounded Theory 8.2.2.6 Discourse Analysis 8.2.2.7 Diary Writing and Narrative Methods 8.2.2.8 Interview
8.3 Let Us Sum Up
8.4 Unit End Questions
8.5 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
8.6 Glossary
8.7 Suggested Readings and References
8.0 OBJECTIVES
With the help of this method, you will be able to:
- Explain the relevance of data collection;
- Describe the quantitative methods of data collection; and
- Elucidate the quantitative methods of data collection.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The first unit of this block tries to explain the various methods of collecting data, with the help of various research methods used in the field of psychology. You have already gone through the various research methods and research designs in third block of this course. In this unit, you will come to know about the various techniques which can be used for collecting data while using these research methods.
- Prof. Madhu Jain, Professor, Discipline of Psychology, Rajasthan University, Jaipur.
- Dr. Vijay Kumar, Academic Psychology, Rajasthan University, Jaipur
Methods of Data Collection
8.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Different research techniques involve different ways of collecting data from the respondents or participants. Basically, the major methods of data collection are quantitative method and qualitative method of data collection. Both these methods have been explained in the following subsections.
8.2.1 Quantitative Methods of Data Collection
A data that can be counted and expressed in terms of numbers or quantity is called quantitative data. A researcher uses several closed ended questionnaires to collect quantitative data, and later on the scores collected from these data are analyzed and interpreted. It collects data in form of figures and numbers and is used to measure attributes, behaviors and other responses. Let us discuss about few of the quantitative methods of collecting data: 8.2.1.1 Quantitative Survey Method It has been argued that surveys should be designed in such a way that helps in making accurate decisions. Predominantly there are three major ways which can be used as an instrument in collecting data with the help of survey research. They are being explained below:
- Sampling: As discussed earlier, a sample is a representation of the population or universe selected for the study. The technique of sampling can in itself act as an instrument in collecting data in survey research. For example if the researcher wants to study the level of job satisfaction amongst the employees of an organisation, then the researcher can select and study the attitude of at least ten persons of each department of the organisation. In order to avoid any bias, the sampling can be done with the help of randomisation (a method of sampling which provides an equal chance for each subject to be involved in the study, which can be done with the help of lottery or fish bowl technique) or stratification (a method of sampling which categorizes the population in to various categories and subcategories and then conducting the research).
- Questionnaire: Questionnaires are basically a kind of paper pencil and multiple choice test in which the individual needs to select the most suitable alternative. The researcher may collect data with the help of a questionnaire from a large number of samples at a single time. Questionnaires can be administered to the sample in three ways: (i) Mail survey (ii) Group administered questionnaire and (iii) household drop off survey. These are being discussed in detail below: i) Mail survey: The researcher may forward a soft copy of the questionnaire to a large number of respondents through mail and can get the data collected from them at a single time. It is one of the relatively inexpensive, less time consuming and convenient method of getting responses. Yet, the questions which require on the spot response or detailed answer is difficult to be achieved through mail survey. ii) Group administered questionnaire: It is one of the traditional methods of administering questionnaire. The researcher calls for a large number of respondents to be present at a stipulated time period as a group. Under such group settings, the respondents are asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions written in paper or questionnaire. The greatest advantage of this method is that the respondents can clarify their doubt regarding any question that has been asked by the researcher instantly.
Methods of Data Collection the ‘Guess who’ technique, the participant has to guess the name of the person on
basis of certain descriptions mentioned of related/known individuals e.g. this is the person who knows your weaknesses. The sociometric data are presented in the form of a sociogram which shows attractions and repulsions within a group with the help of which, a researcher tries to find out the problems in to his/her group.
8.2.1.3 Attitude Scales (Rating Scales) Rating Scales are used in observational studies to assess the quality of some experience or activity. Regardless of their objective, these scales are frequently used in either of two ways: To record behaviour at frequent intervals throughout a sample of social interaction, to rate the nature of the entire social events after it has completed. They are found in one or a combination of three basic forms:
- Numerical Rating Scale
Numerical Rating Scales are employed by behavioural science researchers to record quantified observation of behaviour of individuals, the activities of an entire group, the change in the situation surrounding them and allied data. Although these scales are less reliable and provide more superficial information than category systems, they are sometimes relied upon for practical considerations. Numerical scales involve a series of points which depict varying extents of the dimensions being observed. The numerical scales are simple to construct, easy to use and convenient in data analysis. However, they are more susceptible to varied biases and errors than other types of rating scales.
- Forced-Choice Rating Scale
The Forced-Choice Rating scale may be in varied forms. Usually, it presents two equally favorable statements about the observation of participant. The observer is required to choose only one of the two statements to describe him/her. Thus, she/he may be forced to indicate, whether the individual has more of one quality than another of the given pair. For example, “He is energetic” and “He is intelligent”.
- Graphic Rating Scale
The Graphic Rating Scale is in the form of a straight line representing a thermometer and presented either horizontally or vertically. The observer is required to make a judgment which frequently reflects either positively or negatively on the observation of participant. Shortcomings of Rating Scales
Rating scales are susceptible to certain pitfalls:
Halo Effect: It refers to the tendency on the part of the observer to rate the observed on several qualities according to the general impression (or general mental attitude) s/he has about him/her. For example, if a person appears to be sociable, she/he may be rated as intelligent.
Error of Leniency: It is the tendency on the part of an observer to overestimate (or underestimate) the desirable qualities of the observed when she/he likes (or dislikes) him/her for certain reasons.
Error of Central Tendency: It takes place when the observer is unable to assign extreme ratings and thus, tends to provide moderate ratings to the observed participant/subject.
Methods of Data Collection: Quantitative and Qualitative
- Logical Rating Error: It refers to the tendency on the part of the observer to assign ratings to the observed for qualities which appear logically related in his/her own mind (which may not be true otherwise).
8.2.1.4 Mechanical Observation
In several situation, Observation is conducted by mechanical devices rather than human beings. Mechanical Observation involves use of videotape, traffic counters and other machines for recording behaviour. Researchers tend to use a motion picture camera and time-lapse photography in some unusual observational studies. These techniques can be used in research to design store layouts and resolve problems relating to people or objects moving through different spaces over time. An example of a well-known research project involving Mechanical Observation is the AC Nielsen Television Index (NTI). It uses a Consumer Panel and Mechanical Observation to accomplish ratings for television programmer. They have selected a representative sample of 2000 households in the United States population. These households have agreed to install “people meters” in their homes and become the members of consumer panels. These meters monitor constantly, recording the time a television set is turned on, how long it remains on, which members of the households witness televisions and the channel choices. Thereafter, these data are fed to the company’s central computer via telephone lines.
This arrangement helps in obtaining programme ratings and demographic profiles of particular programme audience for advertisers and networks. Business researchers also tend to use other mechanical devices to assess physical and physiological reactions to different stimuli. These devices include: eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers, pychogalvanometers and voice pitch analysers. However, recently, with the development of systems such as optical scanners and bar codes, it is possible to research inventory levels, shipments, etc. in factories, warehouses and transpiration companies.
Self Assessment Questions I
Fill in the following blanks:
.................................. presents two equally favorable statements about the observed.
................................. are used to record quantified observations of behaviour of individuals.
................................. are basically a kind of paper pencil and multiple choice test in which the individual needs to select the most suitable alternative.
A data that can be counted and expressed in terms of numbers or quantity is called ..................................
8.2.2 Qualitative Methods of Data Collection
Qualitative data collection methods are the techniques used to collect textual or non- numerical data for research and analysis. This method of data collection is used when the researcher needs to collect any information related to knowledge, issues, relationships, cultural practices and any related aspects of the society and individuals. Few of the techniques of collecting data through qualitative method are as follows:
Methods of Data Collection: Quantitative and Qualitative
Illustrative Case Studies: These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilise one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make it familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.
Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies: This type of case studies are performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pit fall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.
Cumulative Case Studies: These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is that the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalisation without additional cost or time being invested on new, possibly repetitive studies.
Critical Instance Case Studies: These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalisability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalised or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.
Data based on information and details (in form of observation/ documentation/ recordings and so on) can be collected on basis of the type of case study a researcher is interested to work upon.
- Uses of Case Studies
There are different ways of using case studies, which are given below:
Writing Analysis of Case Study
The most careful analysis of a case study is probably obtained when it is made in writing. Case studies can be used as term papers with other related readings and bibliographies.
Panel of Experts
Although group members miss the advantages of participation, by listening to a panel of experts a case may be useful to them especially as an introduction to the case method. A variation of this technique would be to bring in a panel of experts to analyse a case after a group had already done so.
Analysis of Similar Case Studies
Another variation of case discussion is to collect data of incidents from the group members from their experience similar to the case under consideration. Generalisations drawn from the case under consideration may carry over to the experiences of other members.
Cross Examination
By cross examination group members with questions prepared in advance, they do careful thinking and preparation before entering into case study. This technique, is especially appropriate for use with cases containing a great deal of detail, gives the researcher many opportunities to ask individuals to defend their points of views in terms of the data presented.
Methods of Data Collection 8.2.2.4 Ethnography
The method is also known as ‘ethnomethodology’ or ‘methodology of people’. As discussed earlier this type of research method basically intends to study culture through close observation and active participation. It focuses on studying socio cultural phenomena of a community. The ethnographer/ researcher collects information regarding the socio cultural phenomena from a lot of people belonging to the community under study. On behalf of their community, the participants also identify and provide the researcher some more respondents as a representative of their community (also known as chaining process). The data is therefore collected using a chain sampling in all empirical areas of investigation. The selected samples are re- interviewed in order to elicit deeper and ambiguous responses. The ethnographer stays within the community for months in order to gain more information through chaining process and collect data in form of observational transcripts and interview recordings. The analysis of data leads to development of theories for the socio cultural phenomena under study, only on basis of the views and perspectives of its respondents.
8.2.2.5 Grounded Theory
Unlike other methods of qualitative research, the grounded theorists do not believe in collecting data through taping and transcribing interviews as it is believed to be a waste of time in grounded theories. The process of grounded theories is far quick and faster as the researcher delimits the data by field-noting interviews and soon after generates concepts that fit with data, are relevant and work in explaining what participants are doing to resolve their main concern. Discussing about the theory before it is written up, drains the researcher’s motivational energy.
Discussions and talks can either render praise or criticise, and both diminish the motivational drive to write memos that develop and refine the concepts and the theory (Glaser, 1998). Data is a fundamental property of the grounded theory which means that everything that gets in the researcher’s way when studying a certain area is data. Not only interviews or observation but anything is data that helps the researcher in generating concepts for the emerging theory. Field notes can come from informal interviews, lectures, seminars, expert group meetings, newspaper articles, internet mail lists, even television shows, conversations with friends etc. It is even possible, and sometimes a good idea, for a researcher with much knowledge in the studied area to interview own self, by treating the interview like any other data, coding and comparing it to other data and generating concepts from it. Interviewing one’s own self helps in gaining an insight from the knowledge that the researcher has at the conceptual level and grounded theory deals with nothing but the conceptual level data.
8.2.2.6 Discourse Analysis
Basically, the discourse analysis identifies the linguistic dependencies which exist between sentences or utterances. Anyhow, it is really difficult to define the concept of discourse analysis. Instead of categorising it under the different kinds of research methods, it can be alleged as one of the creative ways of approaching and thinking about a problem. Alternatively, it can be said to be a way of providing a tangible answer to problems based on scientific research. Eventually the method of discourse analysis helps in unveiling the hidden motivations behind a text or behind the choice of a particular method of research to interpret that text. Expressed in today’s more trendy vocabulary, Critical or Discourse Analysis is
Methods of Data Collection Self Assessment Questions I
State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
Interview is a kind of face to face interaction which helps in providing more honest answers and responses from the sample.
Case study provides a systematic and scientific way of perceiving or examining events, collect data, analyse information, and prepare a report.
The diary writing method identifies the linguistic dependencies which exist between sentences or utterances.
Discourse Analysis is one of the techniques by which the participants record daily activities and data through these diaries are collected with the help of longitudinal technique.
8.3 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied about the various techniques related to collecting data in psychological researches. Majorly, the data collection methods have been divided in to quantitative and qualitative methods. Each of the technique can be used on basis of the research method selected by the researcher and the data required to be collected by them.
8.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Describe the quantitative methods of data collection.
Explain the case study as one of the relevant method of data collection.
Describe the different types of interview technique.
Discuss the process of data collection with the help of discourse analysis and grounded theory.
8.5 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions I
Force Choice Rating Scale
Numerical Rating Scales
Questionnaires
quantitative data
Self Assessment Questions II
True
True
False
False
Methods of Data Collection:
8.6 GLOSSARY Quantitative and Qualitative
Quantitative Data : A data that can be counted and expressed in terms of numbers or quantity is called quantitative data.
Qualitative Data : The textual or non- numerical data collected for research and analysis.
Sampling : A sample is a representation of the population or universe selected for the study.
Diary Writing : The technique by which the participants record daily activities and data through these diaries are collected with the help of longitudinal technique.
Discourse Analysis : The method identifies the linguistic dependencies which exist between sentences or utterances.
Illustrative Case Studies : These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilise one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like.
Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies : This type of case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation.
Cumulative Case Studies : These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times.
Critical Instance Case Studies : These case study examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest.
Interview : Interview is a kind of face to face interaction which helps in providing more honest answers and responses from the sample.
Structured interview : Structured interviews are those interviews in which the questions that are to be asked from the respondents are prepared and preplanned in advance by the researcher.
8.7 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Attree P. Low-income mothers, nutrition and health: a systematic review of qualitative evidence. Maternal and Child Nutrition 2005 1(4): 227-240.
Blaxter M. Criteria for evaluation of qualitative research. Medical Sociology News 1996; 22: 68-71. Booth A. Cochrane or cock-eyed? How should we conduct systematic reviews of qualitative research? Qual EBP conference, Coventry university, may 14-16, 2001.
Flyvbjerg , Bent (2006). “Five Misunderstandings about Case Study Research” Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, (2) pp. 219-245.
Hamberg, M. (1957) Case Studies in Elementary School Administration, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College Columbia University, New York.
Hitcheock, G. and Hughes, D. (1989), Research and the Teacher: A Qualitative “Introduction to School based Research, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Koul, L. (1984), Methodology of Educational Research, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. (II revised edition)
Donovan, J.(2003). Evaluating meta-ethnography: a synthesis of qualitative research on lay experiences of diabetes and diabetes care. Social Science and Medicine. 56: 671-84.
