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History 30 Study guide PART I 1-. What was the nature of the slavery in the Americas? How was it linked to the economies of the Americas, Europe and Africa? Slavery in America was a legal institution that was established more then 100 years before its founding in 1776. The first colony to receive a cargo of about 20 slaves was Virginia in 1619. Slavery spread to the areas of large plantations of high-value cash crops, such as tobacco, cotton, sugar, and coffee. Owning slaves ended up being a high commodity… the more slaves you owned the more free labor owners had in order to work the land and get greater yields of their crops that in turn would be shipped and sold to European and African countries in order to make a profit. 2-. How did the Enlightenment change basic Western attitudes toward reform, faith and reason? The enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in Church and state. 3-. How did the views of the mercantilists about the earth’s resources differ from those of Adam Smith in his book, “THE WEALTH OF NATIONS” Mercantilism was the economic doctrine that says government control of foreign trade is of paramount importance for ensuring the prosperity and security of a state. In particular, it demands a positive balance of trade. Mercantilism was usually a cause of frequent European wars in that time. It also was a motive for colonial expansion. “The Wealth of Nations” is a reflection on economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and argues that free market economies are more productive and beneficial to their societies. 4-. Were the enlightened monarchs true believers in the ideals of the philosophers, or was their enlightenment a mere veneer? Argue both sides of the question Enlightened monarchs embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. Enlightened absolutists' held that royal power emerged not from divine right but from as social contract whereby the ruler had a duty to govern wisely. Enlightened absolutists'
held that royal power emerged not from divine right but from as social contract whereby the ruler had a duty to govern wisely. 5-. Why has France been called a rich nation with an impoverished government? How did the financial weakness of the French monarchy lay the foundations for the revolution of 1789? After the seven years war, France emerged defeated and deeply in debt. Even though the debt was not overly large, the government had a problem tapping into the wealth of the French Nation through taxes. Kings Louis XV and XVI lacked the decisiveness and character to find a resolution and were unable to rally the French public to their side prompting the French Revolution. 6-. How was the Estates General transformed into the national Assembly? How does the Declaration of the rights on Man and Citizen reflect the social and political values of the 18th^ century enlightenment? The Estates-General was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates- General, a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the nobility, the Church, and the common people. Summoned by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, the Estates-General sat for several weeks in May and June of 1789, but came to an impasse as the three Estates clashed over their respective powers. It was brought to an end when many members of the Third Estate formed themselves into a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution. The declaration of the rights of men and Citizen is a document defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of natural right, the rights of man are universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. 7-. A motto of the French Revolution was “equality, liberty, fraternity”. How did the revolution both support and violate this motto? 8-. What caused the Industrial Revolution of the 18th^ century? What were its major technological innovations and what impact did they have? Why did Great Britain take the lead in the industrial revolution? The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The average income and population exhibited unprecedented sustained growth. Great Britain took lead in
Saint-Simon advocated a form of state-technocratic socialism, an arrangement where industrialists would lead society and found a national community based upon cooperation and technological progress, which would be capable of eliminating poverty of the lower classes. Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution. Fourier proposed to eradicate poverty by sufficiently high wages and by a “decent minimum” for those who were not able to work. Owen's philosophy was based on three intellectual pillars: First, no one was responsible for his will and actions because his whole character is formed independently of himself; people are products of their heredity and environment, hence his support for education and labor reform, rendering him a pioneer in human capital investment. Second, all religions are based on the same ridiculous imagination, that make man a weak, imbecile animal. Third, support for the putting-out system instead of the factory system 13-. What were the powerful social and economics forces in Britain that ensured the failure of the Chartist movement, especially since the Chartist demands appear so reasonable from the standpoint of human rights? The depression of 1841–1842 led to a wave of strikes in which Chartist activists were in the forefront, and demands for the charter were included alongside economic demands. Typically strikers resolved to cease work until wages were increased 'until the People's charter becomes the Law of the Land'. Protesters removed the plugs from steam boilers powering industry to prevent their use. Unrest began and strikes quickly spread throughout Britain. Though the government deployed soldiers to swiftly suppress violence, it was the practical problems in sustaining an indefinite stoppage that ultimately defeated the strikers. 14-. Discuss Marx;s analysis of capitalism, and explain why and how he thought capitalism would be destroyed. Karl Marx believed the consciousness of those who earn a wage or salary would be molded by their "conditions" of "wage-slavery", leading to a tendency to seek their freedom by throwing off the capitalist ownership of society. For Marx, conditions determine consciousness and ending the role of the capitalist class leads eventually to a classless society in which the state would wither away. 15-. Why is it necessary for factory owners to develop detailed Factory Rules for the industrial workers, as in “Factory Rules in Berlin, 1844”? What rules in this list night still be applied If you took a job today in a factory in the United States?
In order to keep large factories functioning properly and efficiently so productivity was at a high, factory owners needed to have some kind of structure. Some of the rules that you may see applied in factories to this day may include: a set time of arrival and departure. Not following of any rules may lead to suspension or complete dismissal. Workers found under the influence of alcohol in the workshops will be dismissed. 16-. Why did revolutions break out in so many places in 1848? Compare and contrast the revolutions in France, Germany, Italy and Austrian empire. Five factors were involved: the widespread dissatisfaction with the political leadership; the demand for more participation and democracy; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally the regrouping of the reactionary forces based in the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants. The French Revolution was driven by nationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, who believed that the people should rule themselves. German Revolution took place with large assemblies and mass demonstrations led mostly by well educated students and intellectuals and demanded German national unity, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly. They rejected autocratic political structures. The Italian Revolution had its first outbreak in Sicily against the Bourbon rule. The revolution was successful in that in produced an independent state that lasted only 16 months before the Bourbons came back. The Austrian Revolution had it’s first uprising when peasants rose up against the nobles. The economic crisis between 1845 and 1847 was marked by recession and food shortages. The revolutions failed mostly because revolutionaries had conflicting goals. 17-. Why was it so difficult to unify Italy? Discuss Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini’s contributions to unification. It was difficult to unify Italy since the Austrian Empire directly controlled the northeastern region, making them a powerful force against unification. Cavour became prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He persuaded Napoleon to wage a war against Austria and joined forces with France who subsequently defeated the Austrians.
The perceived breakdown of the balance of power in Europe. Delays and misunderstandings in diplomatic communications. Imperial and colonial rivalry for wealth, power and prestige. Economic and military rivalry in industry and trade. PART II: COMPREHENSIVE QUESTONS 1-. Discuss at leas two LASTING contributions of the Reformation to the Modern World. How did Protestantism affect Catholicism? How did Catholicism affect Protestantism? By dividing Christendom into Catholic and Protestant, the Reformation destroyed the religious unity of Europe, the distinguishing feature of the Middle Ages, and weakened the Church, the chief institution of medieval society. The Reformation’s stress on individual conscience may have contributed to the development of the capitalist spirit, which underlies modern economic life. Reformers objected to ("protested") the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Catholic Church, led to the creation of new national Protestant churches. The Catholic Church responded with the Counter Reformation, Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ, including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. It also involved political activities that included the Roman Inquisition. 2-. CHOOSE ONE of the following countries and write an essay tracing the key changes in social, political and economic developments from the late Middle Ages to WWI: ENGLAND, FRANCE, GERMANY, SPAIN, ITALY. The war between England and France was erupted first in 1337 and continued until 1453, over the legitimacy of the Valois dynasty and also England's claim of control over Aquitaine and few other provinces. A young and inspired French peasant, Joan of Arc, rallied the French troops and led them to the victory over the English at Orleans in 1429. She also persuaded king Charles VII to claim his throne after a ceremony in Reims Cathedral. She marked the French victory over the British rule in France. But a year later she was caught by Burgundians and turned over to England, where she was burned as a witch. The king Louis XIV captured or bought the land to establish France's borders as known today. This method created a significant strain on the treasury of France.
When he died in 1715, the social tension in France was ready to create the pre- conditions of the well known French Revolution. The French Revolution came in
- This event marked also the end of Royal dynasty in France. Jean Jacques Rousseau was one of the most important leaders of the Revolution. The revolutionary National Assembly, divided the country into 83 geographical provinces, instead of previous feudal regional structure. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte has seized the control of France after his successes in Italian front. He crowned himself in 1804 and started to conquer the Europe. After his defeat at Russian front he was exiled in Elba. He returned from the exile and went to war with England in Waterloo in 1815. He lost the war. This became his last move in the history of France. 1800 s became the years of insurrection years for France. The after shocks of the revolution continued to affect the social and political life in France. Some of the colonies were already lost or sold. The working class and the middle class were about to emerge because of the ongoing industrial revolution. These two classes soon started to become strong and rebellious. This period was also marked as a chaotic time in the French history. The region of Alsace-Lorraine was captured by Bismarck in 1870. This area was regained by France after the victory in World War I against Germany. France had lost 10 percent of its men and nearly half of its industry during WW1. 3-. Discuss some of the lasting impacts of the French revolution on the 19th and 20th^ centuries. Why can it be said that the Era of French Revolution was a devise period in the shaping of the modern west even as Robespierre was guillotined and Napoleon defeated? The French revolution is perhaps the ONLY revolution with long lasting effects. What we now consider the dignity of the individual, the sanctity of human life, "civil rights", the equality of all humans under the law, things in other words that we take for granted today were all the result of the French revolution of 1789. Its constituents greatly influenced the American revolutionaries who went on to compose the Constitution of the US based on the enlightenment ideals that preceded the French revolution. 4-. Pick one historical movement or group of ideas studied in this class and make a case for its influence on your life, today, in 2011, at Fairfield University. The Renaissance: As a cultural movement, it encompassed a flowering of literature, science, art, religion, and politics, and a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. My education is being molded based on the ideals that emerged from this time period and evolved throughout time.
7-. Compare and contrast FOUR of the following in terms of their perspective on religious toleration: Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII, Henry IV, Napoleon, Ignatius Loyola. 8-. Compare and contrast the relationship between CULTURE and POLITICS in 4 of the following: 19th^ century Germany, Europe at the time of WWI, Renaissance Italy, 16th^ century Germany, 18th^ century France (pre revolution), England in the 1640’s. 19 th^ century Germany: Bismark built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s. In the 1880s he introduced old age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. He came to realize that this sort of policy was very appealing, since it bound workers to the state, and also fit in very well with his authoritarian nature. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today. WWI: The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate.[233]^ Some people were revolted by nationalism and its results, and so they began to work towards a more internationalist world, supporting organizations such as the League of Nations. Renaissance Italy: The Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature. Italian Renaissance painting exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting. Ebgland in the 1640’s: The term Puritan was first used in the late 1500's to identify a party within the Church of England, the national church. The party sought to make further changes in the church than had been brought about by Protestant reforms during the reigns of King Henry VIII, King Edward VI, and Queen Elizabeth I. Defenders of these reforms called the party members Puritans because of their proposals to "purify" the church. 9-. Discuss the Industrial Revolution as a force for modernization. In what ways, if any, did it make societies more traditional? Contrast social, family, and work life for a typical poor working person in England, France or Germany BEFORE the advent of the factory system and AFTER. In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with
long hours of labor dominated by a pace set by machines. However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel—child labor, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution. The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendor of the homes of the owners to the squalor of the lives of the workers. Poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets. These homes would share toilet facilities, have open sewers and would be at risk of damp. Disease was spread through a contaminated water supply. Conditions did improve during the 19th century as public health acts were introduced covering things such as sewage, hygiene and making some boundaries upon the construction of homes. PART III: IDENTIFY Romanticism : was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution. In part, it was a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education and natural history. 100 days: marked the period between Emperor Napoleon I of France's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815. Waterloo: was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo in present-day Belgium. An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by combined armies of the Seventh Coalition, an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher. The defeat at Waterloo put an end to Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French. Edmund Burke: was an irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party. He is mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution. He has generally been viewed as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism, as well as a representative of classical liberalism.
Quadruple Alliance responsible for the downfall of the First French Empire. In time France was established as a fifth member of the concert. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich and Russian tsar Alexander I. Enclosure: the consolidation or fencing in of common lands British landlords to increase production and achieve greater commercial profits. It also involved reclamation of waste land and the consolidat5tion of strips in block fields. James Watt: was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Great Britain and the world. Rotten Boroughs: was a parliamentary constituencies that had declined in size but still had the right to elect members of the House of Commons. Most of these constituencies were under the control of one man, the patron. Rotten boroughs had very few voters. With just a few individuals with the vote and no secret ballot, it was easy for candidates to buy their way to victory. Henri Comte de Saint-Simon: was a French early socialist theorist whose thought influenced the foundations of various 19th century philosophies; perhaps most notably Marxism, positivism and the discipline of sociology. In opposition to the feudal and military system he advocated a form of state-technocratic socialism, an arrangement where industrialists would lead society and found a national community based upon cooperation and technological progress, which would be capable of eliminating poverty of the lower classes. In place of the church, he felt the direction of society should fall to the men of science. Men who are fitted to organize society for productive labor are entitled to rule it. Thomas Malthus: was an English scholar, influential in political economy and demography. Malthus popularized the economic theory of rent. Robert Owen: was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of socialism and the cooperative movement. Owen's philosophy was based on three intellectual pillars: First, no one was responsible for his [or her] will and his [or her] own actions because his whole character is formed independently of himself; people are products of their heredity and environment, hence his support for education and labour reform, rendering him a pioneer in human capital investment. Second, all religions are based on the same ridiculous imagination, that make man a weak, imbecile animal; a furious bigot and fanatic; or a miserable hypocrite. Third, support for the putting-out system instead of the factory system
Feargus O’connor: was an Irish Chartist leader and advocate of the Land Plan. Chartistism: was a movement for political and social reform in the United Kingdom during the mid-19th century. It takes its name from the People's Charter of 1838. Chartism was possibly the first mass working class labor movement in the world. Its leaders have often been described as either "physical force" or "moral force" leaders, depending upon their attitudes to violent protest. Chartists were largely unsuccessful at convincing Parliament to reform the voting system of the mid-19th century; however, this movement caught the interest of the working class. The working class interest in politics from that point on aided later suffrage movements. Richard Arkwright was an Englishman who, although the patents were eventually overturned, is often credited for inventing the spinning frame — later renamed the water frame following the transition to water power. He also patented a carding engine that could convert raw cotton into yarn. A self-made man, he was a leading entrepreneur of the Industrial Revolution. Arkwright's achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour, and a new raw material (cotton) to create, more than a century before Ford, mass produced yarn. His skills of organization made him more than anyone else, the creator of the modern factory system. Charles Fourier: was a French utopian socialist and philosopher. An influential thinker, some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become main currents in modern society. Fourier is, for instance, credited with having originated the word feminism in 1837. Proletariat: is a term used to identify a lower social class, usually the working class; a member of such a class is proletarian. Originally it was identified as those people who had no wealth other than their children François-René, vicomte de Chateaubriand: was a French writer, politician, diplomat and historian. He is considered the founder of Romanticism in French literature. Georg Friderich Hegel: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel : was a German philosopher, one of the creators of German Idealism. His historicist and idealist account of reality as a whole revolutionized European philosophy and was an important precursor to Continental philosophy and Marxism. Hegel developed a comprehensive philosophical framework, or "system", of Absolute idealism to account in an integrated and developmental way for the relation of mind and nature, the subject and object of knowledge, and psychology, the state, history, art, religion and philosophy. In particular, he developed the concept that mind or spirit manifested itself in a set of contradictions and oppositions that it ultimately integrated and united, without eliminating either pole or reducing one to the other.
Vesuvians: a group of working-class women, who made marriage obligatory for both sexes but allowed the prudent use of divorce, demanded that men share the housework, and deprived wives of civil rights for deferring to their husband's political opinions. Voix de Femmes: was a Parisian feminist newspaper, and later an organization dedicated to education and the advancement of women's rights. The newspaper was published daily beginning in 1848 with the fall of Louis Philippe and the emergence of the much more lenient French Second Republic. Members of the Voix des Femmes did not question that a woman's role was inherently maternal or domestic. Instead, they tried to use the importance of this role as justification for increased financial security, job security, education, property rights, and women' suffrage. Lajos Kossuth: was a Hungarian lawyer, journalist, politician and Regent- President of Hungary in 1849. He was widely honored during his lifetime, including in the United Kingdom and the United States, as a freedom fighter and bellwether of democracy in Europe. Magyar Revolt : March 15, 1848 was the day that a group of Magyar nationalists rioted in Pest-Buda (today Budapest) demanding political autonomy for Hungary from Austria. This resulted in Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian prince and foreign minister, resigning. The new government, Magyar language on all the other nationalities in Hungary. This angered many people, and uprisings followed. Austria took back Hungary after one and a half years of fighting when Russian Tsar Nicholas I marched into Hungary with over 300,000 troops. Hungary was thus placed under brutal martial law, with the Austrian government restored to its original position. First Pan-Slav Congress of 1848: took place in Prague. It was one of several times that voices from all Slav populations of Central Europe were heard in one place. The meeting was meant to be a show of resistance to German nationalism in the city of Prague in the predominantly Slavic Kingdom of Bohemia, which in spite of that was for many centuries a part of the Holy Roman Empire. Frankfurt Assembly : was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany.[1] Session was held from May 18, 1848 to May 31, 1849 in the Paulskirche at Frankfurt am Main. Its existence was both part of and the result of the "March Revolution" in the states of the German Confederation. Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German solution") sought only to unify the northern German states and did not include Austria; it was a debate in the 19th century over the best way to achieve the Unification of Germany. Großdeutsche Lösung ("Greater German solution") favored unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state
Danish War 1864 : Denmark fought Prussia and Austria. Like the First Schleswig War (1848–51), it was fought for control of the duchies because of succession disputes concerning the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation. Scramble for Africa : was a process of invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers during the New Imperialism period, between 1881 and World War I in 1914. As a result of the heightened tension between European states in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning of Africa may be seen as a way for the Europeans to eliminate the threat of a Europe-wide war over Africa. Berlin Conference of 1884: regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Triple Alliance: was the military alliance between Germany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I in 1914. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any two other great powers, or for Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone. Triple Entente Franco-Russian Alliance: was the alliance among Great Britain, France and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907. Splendid Isolation was the foreign policy pursued by Britain during the late 19th century and was characterized by a reluctance to enter into permanent European alliances or commitments with the other Great Powers and by an increase in the importance given to British colonies, protectorates and dependencies overseas. Sarajevo 1914: On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot dead in Sarajevo, by Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six Bosnian Serb assassins coordinated by Danilo Ilić. The political objective of the assassination was to break off Austria-Hungary's south-Slav provinces so they could be combined into a Greater Serbia or a Yugoslavia. The assassins' motives were consistent with the movement that later became known as Young Bosnia. Serbian military officers stood behind the attack. Italia Irredenta Total War: originally, the Italian nationalist movement for the annexation to Italy of territories. The liberation of Italia irredenta was perhaps the strongest motive for the entry of Italy into World War I. Trench warfare: is a form of occupied fighting lines, consisting largely of trenches, in which troops are largely immune to the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery.. In World War I, both sides constructed
economically sowed the seeds in neat rows, and later a horse-drawn hoe. Tull's methods were adopted by many large landowners, and they helped form the basis of modern agriculture. Charles Townshed: was a British politician who proposed in 1767 what became known as the Townshed Acts, five revenue acts intended to confirm the principle that the British Parliament had the right to directly tax the English Colonies in America. Among the results of these acts, which were resisted in the Colonies, was the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, and the subsequent Boston Massacre of 1770. Enclosure: fencing in of common lands by British landlords to increase production and achieve greater commercial profits. It also involved the reclamation of waste land and the consolidation of strips into block fields. James Hargreaves : was a weaver, carpenter and an inventor in Lancashire, England. He is credited with inventing the spinning Jenny in 1764. Priscilla Wakefield : was an English Quaker educational writer and philanthropist. Triangle Trade: is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has exported commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions. First Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen North American colonies that met in 1774, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the American Revolution. It was called in response to the passage of the Coercive Acts by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had punished Boston for the Boston Tea Party. John Wilks : was an English Whig and Liberal politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1830 to 1837. First Amendment : to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights. The amendment prohibits the making of any law “respecting an establishment of religion,” impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Stamp Act: is any legislation that requires a tax to be paid on the transfer of certain documents. Those that pay the tax receive an official stamp on their documents, making them legal documents.
Denis Diderot: was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent persona during the Enlightenment and is best-known for serving as co-founder and chief editor of and contributor to the Encyclopédie. Common Sense: is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. presented the American colonists with an argument for freedom from British rule at a time when the question of independence was still undecided. Voltaire: was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade. Immanuel Kant: was a German philosopher researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology during and at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment. At the time, there were major successes and advances in physical science using reason and logic. But this stood in sharp contrast to the skepticism and lack of agreement or progress in empiricist philosophy. Deism: in the philosophy of religion is the standpoint that reason and observation of the natural world, without the need for organized religion, can determine that the universe is a creation and has a creator. John Locke : widely known as the Father of Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. Montesquieu : was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. Great Fear: occurred 1789 in France at the start of the French Revolution. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and the grain supplies were now guarded by local militias as rumors that bands of armed men were roaming the countryside spread. Mary Wollstonecraft: was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. Wollstonecraft is best known for “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)”, in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason
