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Which level of processing results in longer-lasting memory codes - ✔✔Semantic (what is the meaning of a word or material) A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli is called - ✔✔Iconic our tendency to judge the likelihood of an event on the basis of how readily we can remember - ✔✔Availability heuristic research findings suggest that iconic memory lasts for approximately - ✔✔ 1 / 2 second by encouraging people to imagine their home being destroyed by fire insurance agents are especially successful at selling large homeowners policies the agents are relying on the impact of - ✔✔Availability heuristic for the early version of the stanford binet test iq was defined as - ✔✔mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. words, events, places, and emotions that trigger our memory of the past are called - ✔✔Retrieval cues chunking refers to - ✔✔the organization of information into meaningful units A mnemonic device is a - ✔✔Memory aid Which of the following questions about the word depressed would best prepare you to correctly remember tomorrow that you had seen the word on today's test? - ✔✔How well does the word describe you?
Studies by George Miller and other investigators suggest that short-term memory can hold approximately - ✔✔ 7 pieces of info (plus or minus 2 ) Echoic memory refers to - ✔✔a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Ebbinghaus forgetting curve suggests that - ✔✔The course for forgetting new material is initially rapid and then levels off over time Which brain structure is involved in the formation of explicit memories - ✔✔Hippocampus the tendency to think of objects only in terms of its typical use - ✔✔Functional fixedness Consumers respond more positively to ground beef advertised as " 75 percent lean" than to ground beef described as " 25 percent fat." This illustrates that consumer reactions are influenced by: - ✔✔Framing After being asked to remember three consonants, participants in a study by Peterson and Peterson counted aloud backward by threes in order to prevent: - ✔✔Rehearsal What was zimbardo studying - ✔✔The impact of social roles in behavior Heuristic - ✔✔Mental shortcut that can speed up problem solving how long does echoic memory last - ✔✔ 2 - 4 secs which brain structure is involved in the formation of emotional memories - ✔✔Amygdala Why did Ebbinghaus use nonsense syllables (CVC's) in his initial experiments? - ✔✔Nonsense syllables represent meaningless material and would be uncontaminated by previous learning
Habituation refers to - ✔✔A decrease in responding to a repeated presentation of stimuli Harry Harlow provided baby monkeys with two artificial mothers: a wire mesh mother and a terry cloth mother. The wire mesh mother always provided nourishment (milk in a baby bottle), while the terry cloth mother only provided tactile (touch) comfort. Which 'mother' did the baby monkeys become attached to? - ✔✔Terry cloth mother with no bottle A teratogen is - ✔✔An environmental source of birth defects attribution theory was designed to explain - ✔✔How we explain other people's behavior Chris did very poorly on his last arithmetic test. The tendency to make the fundamental attribution error might lead his sixth-grade teacher to conclude that Chris did poorly because: - ✔✔He is unmotivated in school The fundamental attribution error is likely to lead observers to - ✔✔Praise those who have engaged in acts of heroism Social facilitation refers to the tendency to - ✔✔perform well-learned tasks more effectively in the presence of others. Approximately how many subjects delivered the most intense shocks (almost 450 volts) to students' in Milgram's study of obedience to authority? - ✔✔ 60 percent List three teratogens - ✔✔Drugs (Thalidomide), cigarettes, radiation, alcohol The bystander effect refers to the phenomenon in which - ✔✔The greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress Solomon Asch reported that individuals conformed to a group's judgment of the lengths of lines - ✔✔even when the group judgment was clearly incorrect
The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to - ✔✔Underestimate the impact of situational factors in controlling the behavior of other people and the tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional (personality) factors The prison guards in Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Study often acted cruelly. Who served as participants in his study? - ✔✔People from Palo Alto (Stanford area) they were randomly assigned to play the guard or the prisoner Most people are likely to be surprised by the results of Milgram's initial obedience experiment because - ✔✔The 'teachers' were more obedient than most people would predict Psychology - ✔✔Involves the study of people What we know is learned from informal observation and intuition, what we know is subject to bias 3 Fields of Psychology - ✔✔-Experimental
- Clinical
- Applied Hypothesis - ✔✔Informal definition- an educated guess about how something works Formal definition- a tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables (This is a statement, not a question and must be testable) Scientific Method - ✔✔Hypothesis, Data collection, Data analyisis, Replication Random Assignment - ✔✔Assigning participants to groups by chance which reduces bias, they all have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions of groups in the study (ex. choosing heads or tails and flipping a coin) Random Selection - ✔✔Subjects are selected randomly from a larger group so that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study
Who was Phineas Gage and why is he important? Where were his injury located? - ✔✔He was injured on the railroad with explosives, it was the earliest documentation of a severe brain injury. The injury was located on his left frontal lobe and his personality changed. He was impulsive, angry, and unreliable What is synesthesia? What are 3 examples? - ✔✔Blending of two or more senses
- Hearing notes and seeing color
- Seeing numbers and color
- Touch and taste What is the frontal lobe responsible for? - ✔✔Decision making, rationality/ reasoning, impulse control. It is the executive control What is phrenology? Why is it relevant to psychology? - ✔✔It is a pseudoscience where they would study the head to determine personality. It is one of the earliest attempts at organizing parts of the brain How many neurons are present in a single human brain? - ✔✔About 100 billion Study the neuron and list the function of each component - ✔✔Dendrites receive information/impulses Cell body contains the nucleus Axons send information away Myelin sheath insulates axons and speeds up the travel of information Axon Terminal passes information on to the connecting neurons List 3 main kinds of neurons and describe their function - ✔✔Sensory- Perceive information, sensory receptors Motor- Motor function and movement Inter-neurons- connect cells
What is a synapse? Identify the three parts of a synapes - ✔✔A junction between two neurons. There is a presynapse, synapse, and a post synapse. They take place between the axon terminal and the dendrites What is acetylcholine? - ✔✔This is a primary neurotransmitter that transmits impulses across the synaptic cleft which controls movement, muscles, and muscle contraction What are neurotransmitters? - ✔✔Chemical messengers Central Nervous System (CNS) - ✔✔Includes the brain and spinal cord Which of the following is a good research hypothesis? - ✔✔Aggressive behavior increases as exposure to violent video games increases What is the purpose of random assignment? - ✔✔Random assignment reduces systematic bias between participants in the experimental and control groups in a search study Robert Rosenthal administered a 'Blooming IQ test' to elementary school children. Children who were identified as 'bloomers' showed significantly greater gains in IQ scores at the end of the school year compared to children who were not identified as 'bloomers'. These findings were subject to which experimental confound? - ✔✔Expectancy effects I want to study the effectiveness of a new anti-depressant medication. I recruit 100 depressed individuals into my study. 50 participants receive the new anti-depressant medication and 50 participants receive a placebo. Two weeks later my research assistants assessed the depression level of each participant. Neither the participants nor the research assistants knew which participants received the anti-depressant medication. This study illustrates a - ✔✔Double blind research design Hundreds of studies have investigated the impact of T.V. violence on aggressive behavior in children. Results of the studies support the conclusion that - ✔✔Viewing T.V. violence does increase aggressive behavior in children
Kim is a patient in the hospital recovering from a bad car crash in which her head was badly hurt. Her mom visits Kim in her hospital room. Surprisingly, Kim insists that the woman visitor is not her real mother but an impostor! Kim may be suffering from - ✔✔Capgras syndrome Which of the following are neurotransmitters? - ✔✔Dopamine, Serotonin, and Acetycholine Dendrites - ✔✔Short fibers that receive neural messages from neighboring neurons The central nervous system consists of - ✔✔The brain and spinal cord Axons are sometimes surrounded by (encased in) a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath insulates nerve impulses and also - ✔✔Speeds up neural impulses Alicia reports seeing the color red every time she hears the C-minor on the piano. Alicia most likely suffers from - ✔✔Synesthesia Hypothesis - ✔✔a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables (this is a statement, not a question) Variable - ✔✔Any phenomenon or stimulus that can vary in value independent variable - ✔✔Experimental factor that is manipulated; the treatment itself (ex. TV time, 15 minutes) Dependent variable - ✔✔The behavior that is measure; the factor that might be affected by changes in the independent variable (ex. Children's behavior) Operational definition - ✔✔Specifies the operations and procedures that are used to define the independent and dependent variables
Random assignment - ✔✔Assigning participants to groups by chance which reduces bias, they all have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions of groups in the study (ex. choosing heads or tails and flipping a coin) Experimental group - ✔✔The group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions. including the independent variable Control group - ✔✔In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. Random selection - ✔✔Subjects are selected randomly from a larger group so that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study Placebo - ✔✔a fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects Expectancy effects - ✔✔the influence of the researcher's expectations on the outcome of the study Confounding variables - ✔✔A variable whose uncontrolled presence serves to confound your results and possibly leads to false conclusions Double-blind study - ✔✔An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo Research designs - ✔✔Plans of action for how to conduct a scientific study
- Case study
- Observational study
- Interview study
- Survey study
- Experimental study Observational study - ✔✔A study based on data in which no manipulation of factors has been employed
Sensory neurons - ✔✔Perceive information, sensory receptors Motor neurons - ✔✔Motor function and movements Inter-neurons - ✔✔Connect cells together Myelin (Myelin sheath) - ✔✔A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed Resting potential - ✔✔The state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation Action potential - ✔✔A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron Terminal buttons - ✔✔Small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine) Neurotransmitters - ✔✔Chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron Acetylcholine - ✔✔A neurotransmitter that causes muscle contractions and is involved in learning and memory Serotonin - ✔✔Involved in sensory perceptions, sleep, and emotion Dopamine - ✔✔Involved in movement, attention, learning, and pleasurable or rewarding sensations Neuro-chemical signaling - ✔✔Between two neurons involves point-to-point communication (signal is passed immediately and terminates rapidly).
Synapse - ✔✔Junction between 2 neurons Cortex - ✔✔Outer bark of the brain, 2 - 3 mm. thick Visual cortex - ✔✔The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes involving visual processing Auditory cortex - ✔✔the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information Frontal lobe (cortex) - ✔✔In charge of executive control. Involved with impulse control, decision making, irrationality/reasoning Somatosensory cortex - ✔✔An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations Motor cortex - ✔✔An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements 4 lobes of the brain - ✔✔Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal Controlateral signals - ✔✔The right hemisphere controls the left side of the brain and vice versa which are motor and sensory pathways Corpus Callosum - ✔✔Fibers that connecting both hemispheres of the brain Frontal lobe - ✔✔Executive functioning, planning, impulse control, motor cortex, and activity Parietal lobe - ✔✔Sensory cortex- sensory information-touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
Experimental condition - ✔✔The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable Control condition - ✔✔Exposed to the independent variable but has a value of 0 What is pseudoscience? - ✔✔A set or theories, assumptions, and methods erroneously regarded as scientific, it shows us that someone else can replicate a result Phineas Gage - ✔✔He was injured on the railroad with explosives, it was the earliest documentation of a severe brain injury. The injury was located on his left frontal lobe and his personality changed. He was impulsive, angry, and unreliable What is phrenology? - ✔✔It is a pseudoscience where they would study the head to determine personality. It is one of the earliest attempts at organizing parts of the brain How many neurons are present in a single human brain? - ✔✔About 100 billion Sensation is the same thing as perception True or False - ✔✔False Sensation could refer to a sound while perception could refer to melody - ✔✔True What is the difference between sensation and perception? - ✔✔Sensation- receiving stimulus Perception- processing the stimulus (interpreting) Absolute Threshold - ✔✔The minimum stimulus needed to get processed or perceived ( 50 % of the time) Why were headrests added to car seats? - ✔✔People would have visual issues due to the brain hitting the back of the skull and getting damaged
Two objects must differ by 2 % in weight before we detect a difference True or False - ✔✔True Two lights must differ by 8 % in intensity before we detect a difference True or False - ✔✔True What law do both above pertain to? - ✔✔Weber's Law Binocular cues are the cues to the distance of an object that arises from when only one eye is working True or False - ✔✔False, it is monocular There are two types of cones that identify different wavelengths - ✔✔False, there are 3 - R, B, G Sensory adaptation - ✔✔diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Habituation - ✔✔Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Identify the two photo-receptors discussed in class. there location, and their function - ✔✔Rods- Peripheral Cons- Color- Retina Identify monocular cues reviewed in class - ✔✔-Interposition
- Texture gradient
- Elevation
- Linear perspective Describe the experiment testing depth perception in babies - ✔✔Crawling to verify depth perception
Vivid dreams typically occur during - ✔✔REM sleep Which cells are most light sensitive - ✔✔Rods Which receptor cells most directly enable us perceive color? - ✔✔Cones Evidence suggests that we consolidate our memories of recent life events during: - ✔✔REM Sleep Which of the following disorders is characterized by the temporary cessation of breathing while asleep? - ✔✔Sleep apnea In a study of the impact of sleep on learning, subjects were asked to learn a 'perceptual detective task' immediately prior to falling asleep. Investigators subsequently awake some subjects during REM sleep and awoke others during Delta (Stage 4 ) sleep. Which group of subjects displayed the worst performance on the perceptual detective task the next morning? - ✔✔Subjects who were deprived of REM sleep Sleepwalking occurs during which stage of sleep? - ✔✔Delta (stage 4 ) sleep The feature identified by Hubel and Weisel respond to specific aspects of stimulation? - ✔✔Visual A newspaper reported that the message "Eat Popcorn", presented for less than 50 milliseconds on a movie screen, increased the purchase and consumption of popcorn during the movie. Follow-up research on subliminal perception and consumer purchasing decisions: - ✔✔Did not confirm the impact of subliminal messages on consumer purchasing decisions an behavior The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for their differences to be perceived is known as - ✔✔Weber's law After sitting in a hot bath for five minutes and not moving you fail to realize how hot the water is in the bathtub. This best illustrates: - ✔✔Sensory adaptation
Pavlov placed food on a dog's tongue and the dog salivated. Pavlov then rang a bell a second before placing the food on the dog's tongue. Again the dog salivated. What was the unconditioned stimulus? - ✔✔The food In Pavlov's experiment a dog salivated in response to the sound of a bell. After conditioning, the bell is called - ✔✔A conditioned stimulus Prior to conditioning, the bell in Pavlov's experiment was called - ✔✔A neutral stimulus An infant received three painful injections from a nurse in a white uniform. During each injection, the infant cried and displayed symptoms of distress. Soon the infant began to cry when seeing a pharmacist in a white smock or a saleswomen in a department store wearing a white jacket. In this example, the white smock and white jacket are - ✔✔Conditioned stimuli John Watson's study of Little Albert demonstrated how specific fears - ✔✔May be produced through classical condioning Another name for Pavlovian condition is - ✔✔Classical conditioning In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus must be presented the unconditioned stimulus - ✔✔Before I condition a dog to salivate in response to a specific tone. Several days later, I present a slightly different tone to the dog and again, the dog salivates. The latter behavior reflects the process of - ✔✔Generalization I drink a few sips of coffee as soon as I wake up in the morning and I immediately feel alert and wide- alert. Yet it takes about 20 minutes for the caffeine to reach significant levels in my bloodstream to have an effect! So why do I feel the effects of the coffee almost immediately after drinking it or maybe even smelling it? - ✔✔The effects are due to classical conditioning
