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CHAPTER 11 – The School Years: Biosocial Development
Middle Childhood – the period after early childhood and before adolescence, approximately from age 7 to 11, is the healthiest period of the entire life span; fatal illness is very rare and mortal injuries are unusual Overweight – in an adult, having a BMI of 25-29. In a child, being above the 85th percentile, based on USCDC’s 1980 standards for his/her age & sex Obesity – in an adult, having a BMI of 30+. In a child, being above the 95th^ percentile, based on USCDC’s 1980 standards for his/her age & sex Asthma – a chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the lungs to the nose and mouth, causing difficulty in breathing. Signs and symptoms include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. Reaction time – the time it takes to responds to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive mvmt such as an eye blink) or cognitively (with a thought). Automatization – a process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine, so that it no longer requires conscious thought Aptitude – the potential to master a particular skill or to learn a particular body of knowledge IQ tests – tests designed to measure intellectual aptitude , or ability to learn in school; originally, intelligence was defined as mental age divided by chronological age, times 100-hence the term intelligence quotient, or IQ Achievement tests – measures of mastery or proficiency in reading, math, writing, science, or any other subject Flynn Effect – the rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) – an IQ test designed for school-age children; the test assesses potential in many areas, including vocabulary, general knowledge, memory, and spatial comprehension Mental retardation – literally, slow, or late, thinking; in practice, people are considered mentally retarded if they score below 70 on an IQ test and if they are markedly behind their peers in adaptation to daily life Children with special needs – children who, because of a physical or mental disability, require extra help in order to learn
Developmental psychopathology – the field that uses insights into typical development to study and treat developmental disorders, and vice versa Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-R) – the American Psychiatric Association’s official guide to the diagnosis (not treatment) of mental disorders ( IV-R means “fourth edition, revised”) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – a condition in which a person not only has great difficulty concentrating for more than a few moments but also is inattentive, impulsive, and overactive Comorbidity – the presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person Learning disability – a marked delay in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by mental retardation, or by an unusually stressful home environment Dyslexia – unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment Autism – a developmental disorder marked by an inability to relate to other people normally, extreme self-absorption, and an inability to acquire normal speech Autistic spectrum disorder – any of several disorders characterized by inadequate social skills, impaired communication, and abnormal play Asperger syndrome – a specific type of autistic spectrum disorder characterized by extreme attention to details and deficient social understanding Individual education plan (IEP) – a document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs Least restrictive environment (LRE) – a legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn Resource room – a room in which trained teachers help children with special needs, using specialized curricula and equipment Inclusion – an approach to educating children with special needs in which they are included in regular classrooms, with “appropriate aids and services,” as required by law
ESL – an approach to teaching English in which all children who do not speak English are placed together an given an intensive course in basic English so that they can be educated in the same classroom as native English speakers No Child Left Behind Act – a US law passed by congress in 2001 that was intended to increase accountability in education by requiring standardized tests to measure school achievement; many critics, especially teachers, say the law undercuts learning and fails to take local needs into consideration National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) – an ongoing and nationally representative measure of children’s achievement in reading, math, and other subjects over time; nicknamed “the Nation’s Report Card” Reading First – a federal program that was established by the No child Left Behind Act and that provides states with funding for early reading instruction in public schools, aimed at ensuring that all children learn to read well by the end of the third grade Hidden curriculum – the unofficial, unstated, or implicit rules and priorities that influence the academic curriculum and every other aspect of learning in school TIMSS (Trends in Math and Science Study) – an international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth- and eighth-graders; although the TIMSS is very useful, scores are not always comparable, because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to keep uniform Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) – inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth- graders Phonics approach – teaching reading by first teaching the sounds of each letter and of various letter combinations Whole-language approach – teaching reading by encouraging early use of all language skills – talking and listening, reading and writing
CHAPTER 13 – The School Years: Psychosocial Development
Social comparison – the tendency to assess one’s abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one’s peers Culture of children – the particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society Deviancy training – the process whereby children are taught by their peers to avoid restrictions imposed by adults Preconventional moral reasoning – Kohlberg’s first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments Conventional moral reasoning – Kohlberg’s second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules Postconventional moral reasoning – Kohlberg’s third level of moral reasoning, emphasizing moral principles Aggressive-rejected – rejected by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior Withdrawn-rejected – rejected by peers because of timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior Social cognition – the ability to understand social interactions, including the causes and consequences of human behavior Effortful control – the ability to regulate one’s emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination Bullying – repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person Bully-victim – someone who attacks others, and who is attacked as well (also called provocative victims because they do things that elicit bullying, such as taking a bully’s pencil) Family structure – the legal and genetic relationships (e.g. nuclear, extended, step) among relatives in the same home Family function – the way a family works to meet the needs of its members; children need families to provide basic material necessitites, encourage learning, develop self- respect, nurture friendships, and foster harmony and stability
CHAPTER 14 – Adolescence: Biosocial Development
Puberty – the time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development; puberty usually lasts 3-5 years; many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity Menarche – a girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that he has begun ovulation; pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche Spermarche – a boy’s first ejaculation of sperm; erections can occur as yearly as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production; spermarche occurs during sleep (in a “wet dream”) or via direct stimulation Hormone – an organic chemical substance that is produced by one body tissue and conveyed via the bloodstream to another to affect some physiological function; various hormones influence thoughts, urges, emotions, and behavior Pituitary – a gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands Adrenal glands – two glands, located above the kidneys, that produce hormones (including the “stress hormones” epinephrine and norepinephrine) HPA axis – the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, a route followed by many kinds of hormones to trigger the changes of puberty and to regulate stress, growth, sleep, appetite, sexual excitement, and various other bodily changes Gonads – the paired sex glands (ovaries in females, testicles in males); the gonads produce hormones and gametes Estradiol – a sex hormone, considered the chief estrogen; females produce more estradiol than males do Testosterone – a sex hormone, the best known of the androgens (male hormones); secreted in far greater amounts by males than by females Secular trend – a term that refers to the earlier and greater growth of children due to improved nutrition and medical care over the last two centuries Body image – a person’s idea of how his or her body looks Growth spurt – the relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty; each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and the limbs precede the torso
Primary sex characteristics – the parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis Secondary sex characteristics – physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man’s beard and a woman’s breasts Sexually transmitted infection (STI) – a disease spread by sexual contact, including syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, Chlamydia, and HIV Child sexual abuse – any erotic activity that arouses an adult and excites, shames, or confuses a child, whether or not the victim protests ad whether or not genital contact is involved Generational forgetting – the idea that each new generation forgets what the previous generation learned about harmful drugs
Middle school – a school for the grades between elementary and high school; middle school can begin with grade 5 or 6 and usually ends with grade 8 High-stakes test – an evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure; if a single test determines whether a student will graduate or be promoted, that is a high- stakes test
CHAPTER 16 – Adolescence: Psychosocial Development
Identity – a consistent definition of one’s self as a unique individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations Identity achievement – Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans Identity diffusion – a situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is Foreclosure – Erikson’s term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts parents’ or society’s roles and values wholesale, without questioning and analysis Moratorium – a way for adolescents to postpone making identity achievement choices by finding an accepted way to avoid identity achievement; going to college is the most common example Gender identity – a person’s acceptance of the roles and behaviors that society associates with the biological categories of male and female Sexual orientation – a term that refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes Bickering – petty, peevish arguing, usually repeated and ongoing Parental monitoring – parents’ ongoing awareness of what their children are doing, where, and with whom Clique – a group of adolescents made up of close friends who are loyal to one another while excluding outsiders Crowd – a larger group of adolescents who have something in common but who are not necessarily friends Peer pressure – encouragement to conform with one’s friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority Deviancy training – destructive peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms Peer selection – an ongoing, active process whereby adolescents select friends on the basis of shared interests and values
