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The Evolution of English: From
Old to Modern
Future Tenses in English
Overview
There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English. It is important to remember that we are expressing more than simply the time of the action or event. Any 'future' tense will always refer to a time 'later than now', but it may also express our attitude to the future event. The following ideas can be expressed using different tenses:
Simple prediction: There will be snow in many areas tomorrow. Arrangements: I'm meeting Jim at the airport. Plans and intentions: We're going to spend the summer abroad. Time-tabled events: The plane takes off at 3 a.m. Prediction based on present evidence: I think it's going to rain! Willingness: We'll give you a lift to the cinema. An action in progress in the future: This time next week I'll be sun- bathing. An action or event that is a matter of routine: You'll be seeing John in the office tomorrow, won't you? Obligation: You are to travel directly to London. An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon: The train is about to leave. Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action: A month from now he will have finished all his exams.
Future Verb Tenses
There are four future verb tenses in English:
Simple future tense Future continuous tense Future perfect tense Future perfect continuous tense
Other Ways to Talk About the Future
There are also several other ways to talk about the future without using a future verb tense:
Using the present continuous to talk about future arrangements Using the simple present to talk about scheduled events Using 'going' to talk about the future Future obligations The immediate future
Simple Present and Present Progressive
Simple Present
The Simple Present describes events, situations, or activities not connected to time restrictions. It is used to describe what generally happens, often with adverbs of frequency like 'always', 'usually', or 'often'. The Simple Present is used for two main types of actions:
Habits: actions that occur or do not occur regularly (every day, every year) States: things that do not change easily (opinions, conditions)
Example: Mike goes to church every Sunday (every Sunday indicates a habit) Example: Mary has green eyes (this is a state that cannot change)
Present Progressive
The Present Progressive is used for two main types of actions:
An action happening now: something that is occurring at the moment of speaking A defined future plan: something that is intended to be done in the near future and has already been scheduled
Example: I'm watching the match on TV (I am watching it now) Example: He's leaving for Paris next week (he has probably already booked and bought the tickets)
Simple Past and Past Progressive
Simple Past
The Simple Past is used to recount past events that occurred once, were repeated, occurred consecutively, or interrupted a past action that was in progress.
Example: Marie moved to Paris in 1891.
Past Progressive
The Past Progressive emphasizes the duration of an action that took place in the past.
Example: Lucy was sitting on the beach at six o'clock yesterday.
The Past Progressive can also be used:
To express actions that were occurring simultaneously in the past Example: While Lucy was relaxing on the beach, Laurence was sailing.
The Present Perfect without 'for' or 'since' shows that an activity is finished. We often say how many or how many times with this use of the Present Perfect. Example: She's read the book. She's finished the book.
The Present Perfect Progressive shows that an activity is unfinished. We often say how long with the Present Perfect Progressive. Example: She's been reading a book, she's still reading it.
Future Progressive
The Future Progressive is made up of two elements: the simple future of the verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing). The Future Progressive expresses events that will last for a duration of time at some point in the future. It is also called the Future Continuous tense.
Use the Future Progressive with 'be going to' or 'will' to talk about actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future. Example: At this time tomorrow, I'm going to be flying to Milan.
We often use the Future Progressive instead of the Future to make a question more polite or to ask indirectly for a favor. Example: Will you be going by the post office tomorrow?
Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Simple
We use the Past Perfect Simple with action verbs to emphasize the completion of an event.
Example: I'd waited an hour for the bus. (The waiting is over)
Past Perfect Continuous
We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that an event or action in the past was still continuing.
Example: I'd been waiting an hour for the bus. (The focus is on the duration of the waiting)
We use the Past Perfect Simple to talk about an action that started in the past and was interrupted by another action in the Simple Past. We also use it to say how often something happened.
We use the Past Perfect Continuous to talk about an action that had already started in the past and was interrupted by another past action (Past Simple). The focus is on how long the action had been in progress.
Use of Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses are used to identify or provide additional information about nouns (people, places, things). They can be seen as a combination of two sentences. For example:
The car whose tyre has just burst is not hers. I have a friend who loves to shop.
Use of "so", "too", "neither", "not either", and
"but" for Additions
Additions are made to avoid repetitions. They are clauses and short sentences that follow a statement and express similarity to or contrast with the information in the statement. "So" and "Too" (in affirmative statements), "Neither" and "Not either" (in negative sentences), are used to express similarity. "But" is used to express contrast. For example:
I can't swim, but I can ski. She went home one hour ago. So did James. He has got a lot of friends, too. I don't know him. Me neither , or Neither do I , or I don't know him either (addition – similarity).
Use of Gerunds and Infinitives
Gerunds
A Gerund is a verb that acts as a noun. Gerunds can act as the subject or object of a main verb. Gerunds are used after prepositions, but not usually after 'to'. Gerunds are used after certain words and expressions, as is the infinitive. If a verb ends with -e, it loses the last letter before adding the -ing suffix.
Examples: - Studying is good for you. - We are talking about writing in English.
Infinitives
The infinitive usually occurs with 'To' (e.g., To go, To come, To wear), except after an auxiliary or modal verb. The infinitive is a verb form that shows no person, tense or aspect.
Examples: - I had to go. - I must go. - To write in English is difficult. - I would like to write in English.
Use of Modal Verbs for Speculations and
Conclusions about the Past
May have, Might have, and Could have are used to express speculations or possibilities about a past situation. Must have or Have to have are used to draw conclusions, of which you are almost certain. Couldn't have is used to express disbelief or impossibility.
Examples: - Sarah might have lost her way; she should be here by now. - You must have gone to bed late; you look tired! - You couldn't have gone to university but you decided to work instead.
Passive Voice Transformations
Present Perfect
Active: Rita has written a letter. Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.
Present Continuous
Active: Rita is writing a letter. Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: - The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. - The finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle). - The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped). - 'By' is used to mention the agent, if it is important to know who it is.
Future Real Conditionals
The future real conditional (also called conditional 1) describes what you think you will do in a specific situation in the future. It has the following structure:
IF CLAUSE (in the present simple) + RESULT CLAUSE (in the future or going to)
Examples: - If I go to my friend's house for dinner tonight, I will take a bottle of wine or some flowers. - When you call me, I will give you the address.
The use of 'if' suggests that you do not know if something will happen or not, while 'when' suggests that something will definitely happen at some point.
The Passive Causative
The passive causative is used when the focus is on the thing instead of the person causing an action. It uses the following structure:
subject | causative verb (have or get) | object | past participle
Examples: - You should have them looked at by a dentist. - You should get it cut! - I had the car tuned up. - He had his home entertainment system installed a few days ago.
Present Real Conditionals
The present real conditional (also called conditional 0) is used to talk about general truths and scientific facts that do not change. It has the following structure:
IF CLAUSE (in the present simple) + RESULT CLAUSE (in the present simple)
Examples: - If we heat ice, it melts. - Ice melts if we heat it.
The use of 'if' suggests that something happens less frequently, while 'when' suggests that something happens regularly.
When I Have a Day Off from Work
Going to the Beach
When I have a day off from work, I usually go to the beach. I regularly have days off from work.
The Passive with Modals and Similar Expressions
Use will or be going to with the passive to talk about the future (e.g., The house will be completed in five years). Use can with the passive to express present ability, and use could with the passive to express past ability (e.g., The space station can be seen from Earth - It could be seen clearly last year too). Use could, may, might, and can't with the passive to express future possibility or impossibility (e.g., Tourists may be invited - plants might be grown on board). Use have (got) to, had better, should, ought to, and must with the passive to express obligation, advisability, and necessity (e.g., Privacy had better be respected - everyone must be consulted).
Examples of indirect speech: - She said that she had seen him. - She told him that she was happy. (or She told him she was happy.) - He said that he was tired. - He told me that he was tired.
Tense Changes in Indirect Speech
When the reporting verb is in the simple past (said, told) in indirect speech, the verb tense the speaker used often changes. For example, the simple present becomes the simple past, or the simple past becomes the past perfect.
Examples: - Direct speech: "The house is dirty." - Indirect speech: My mother said that the house was dirty.
The table in the text shows how different tenses change in indirect speech.
Indirect Questions
Indirect questions are a little more formal and polite. They are used when talking to a person we don't know very well, or in professional situations. The form is a little different from direct questions.
Example of an indirect question: "Could you tell me where the bathroom is?"
In indirect questions: - We don't use the auxiliary verbs do/does/did. - The verb form changes (e.g., "open" becomes "opens").
Examples: - Direct question: "Why did you move to Europe?" - Indirect question: "I was wondering why you moved to Europe." - Direct question: "Does Tom like Italian food?" - Indirect question: "Do you know if Tom likes Italian food?"
Indirect Instructions, Commands, Requests, and
Invitations
In indirect speech, the infinitive (to + base verb form) is used for instructions, commands, requests, and invitations.
Examples: - Direct speech: "Stop smoking." "Don't drink alcohol." "Lie down." - Indirect speech: He said to stop smoking. He told her not to drink alcohol.
Use a negative infinitive (not+infinitive) for negative instructions, negative commands, and negative requests.
Example: He told me not to eat after 9:00 PM.
Present and Future Unreal Conditionals
Present and future unreal conditionals are used to refer to unreal conditions and their results, which can be untrue, imagined, or impossible.
Example: "If I had a sister, I would have a lot of fun with her."
In the if clause, the verb is in the past simple, and in the result clause, the verbs are WOULD - MIGHT - COULD + base form of the verb.
Use WOULD in the result clause if the result clause is PROBABLE. Use MIGHT or COULD in the result clause if the result clause is LESS PROBABLE. Use COULD in the result clause to express ABILITY.
Use WISH + simple past to talk about things that you want to be true now, but that are not true.
Example: "I wish I lived in a castle." (I don't live in a castle now, but I want to live in one.)
Reporting Questions
When we report questions, there are important changes between direct questions and reported questions.
For yes/no questions: - Direct question: "Do you like working in teams?" - Reported question: He asked if I liked working in teams.
For questions with a question word: - Direct question: "What time does the train leave?" - Reported question: He asked what time the train left.
The reported questions do not have a question mark at the end.
Embedded Questions
An embedded question is a question that is included inside another question or statement. They are common after introductory phrases, such as: I wonder, Could you tell me, Do you know, Can you remember, Let's ask, We need to find out, I'd like to know, Could you tell me, I'm not sure, Would you mind explaining.
There are five rules for using embedded questions:
If the embedded question is part of a statement, use a period and not a question mark at the end of the sentence. Also, if the question is in the present or past simple verb tense, omit the auxiliary verbs do, does, and did and change the verb to its appropriate form.
If the embedded question includes an auxiliary verb or the verb 'to be', reverse the positions of the subject and the auxiliary verb.
Do not use a verbal contraction at the end of the sentence.
Embedded questions are introduced by whether, whether or not, and if when there is no question word in the sentence (yes/no questions).
I was walking along the path by the river
when suddenly I saw a small silver box on the
ground!
It was a really rainy day, the sky was covered with clouds, but that little silver box was very evident, it was the sun on a rainy day. I was surprised by the contents, a small sheet of paper that said: 'welcome to nature, if you respect it, it will respect you'!
Typical Bulgarian Festival or Celebration
Dear Henry,
How are you? It was great to hear from you again.
I'm writing to you about your next trip to Bulgaria. I suggest you go to Bulgaria at the end of February because one of the most important holidays is Kukeri, which takes place in the last days of winter (usually at the end of February) as a greeting to the spring that is coming. It is only Bulgarian men who participate in it, wearing clothes made of sheepskin and copper bells hanging from their belts. The masks are made of shreds and woolen hoods.
Another event is the party of Baba Marta, named after an old lady, who according to tradition, would influence the weather. As well as Kukeri, this festival also marks the end of winter, giving the welcome back to the spring that is coming. It is customary to exchange bracelets, necklaces or dolls of wool, called all martenitsi, which would serve just to make Baba Marta happy and have a milder time. It is traditional to wear martenitsi on the wrists or neck until you see a stork flying, as a sign of the arrival of spring.
People feel proud of this party, because together they celebrate and say hello to the winter, showing joyful at the arrival of spring. It's a feeling, a party that makes them feel good and positive. Bulgaria is the home of folklore, one in which there is no lack of occasion to celebrate with dances and folk costumes, and where there is excellent wine and good music. It is during the holidays that you have the opportunity to admire the traditional Bulgarian costume, with its colorful and lively tones, which in the most rural villages, is even worn daily.
I hope you will have fun, let me have your news, see you soon, Stefania Giunta
Celebratory Card
Dearest Vanessa,
Congratulations on your graduation, it's an important day and I knew you would make it! Realizing your dream has led you to this important goal. You are only at the beginning, but remember that achieving your success is among the most beautiful adventures of life. Years of study to prepare you
for a bright future, made of sacrifices but also of immense happiness. Congratulations to the wonderful woman you are becoming. I wish you all the best that life can give you, buddy! Luke
Condolence Card
Dear Roberto,
I have known about my aunt and I am very sorry, a woman who has always faced everything with positivity and determination. His smile was contagious and gave joy to the soul. Rosi and baby Alice will give you the strength to go on. I embrace you, with love. Stefania
Birthday Card
We've spent many years together, but it seems like it's only yesterday when we met. How many adventures, how many emotions, but despite the distance we are always united and happy. You make me a better person, and today even though the world is very fast and most things change often, I know I can count on you. With all my love Stefania
Parmigiana di melanzane (Eggplant
Parmesan)
INGREDIENTS - 1 kg and a half aubergines - 240 gr mozzarella cheese - 150 gr parmesan - 2 liter tomato puree - olive oil - seed oil - salt - basil leaves (optional)
The aubergines we are going to use are the long ones. Cut them in slices, after removing the core. We are going to make a simple tomato sauce by frying a garlic clove in little amount of olive oil. Remove the clove paying attention not to make it burns, add tomatoes puree, salt and just a bit of water. Let it cooks low heat and let's we fry our aubergines. Grunny tip aims to avoid aubergines absorbe too much oil. Put the seed oil in a frying pan and wait until it will be really hot. You can test the heat by putting a tiny piece of aubergine in the pan. Fry the slices gradually and put them when they are brown coloured on large kitchen papers leaves. When the sauce is ready and you've finished with aubergine it is arrived the time to assemble our Parmigiana. Put a first layer of aubergines in a rectangular pan, add diced mozzarella cheese, tomato sauce a sprinkle of parmesan and start again like you were preparing lasagna. Add sauce, parmesan and basil on the top and cook it in the oven for 30 minutes at 180°. Mmmm tasty...
Directions to Reach My House
Dear Susan,
I am happy that you will come to Palermo! From the central station of Palermo you have to take the subway for the subway. Get off at the third
is a masterpiece unique in the world! Thanks to the Norman kings who financed the construction of the Duomo and the Arab and Italian architects and the Byzantine artists who worked here to leave us a jewel of Christian art!
Email About a Recent Trip
Dear Silvia,
Many thanks for your recent letter. I'm glad you enjoyed your last trip. I am writing this letter to tell you about my holiday in London, the capital of the United Kingdom. I love London, it is a very beautiful city. We went to see the Natural History Museum, the British Museum and the V&A museum. My favourite attraction is the London Eye. I loved seeing the city from that high. We bought t-shirts for my sisters and we sent five postcards to family and friends. We also went to eat fish and chips, and we had some apple crumble. London is my favourite city, I was sad that I had to go home.
With love, S
Article on a Recent Disaster
Indonesia earthquake: Hundreds dead in Palu quake and tsunami (headline)
More than 380 people have been confirmed dead after a tsunami triggered by a magnitude 7.5 earthquake hit an Indonesian city on Friday. Waves up to 3m (10ft) high swept through Palu on Sulawesi island. Strong aftershocks rocked the city on Saturday. Thousands of homes have collapsed, along with hospitals, hotels and a shopping centre.
Rescue efforts are under way, though hampered by a major power cut. The main road to Palu has been blocked due to a landslide, and a key bridge is out of action. Indonesia's disaster agency said at least 384 people had been killed, but the number is expected to rise. 'Many bodies were found along the shoreline because of the tsunami, but the numbers are still unknown,' Sutopo Purwo Nugroho, a spokesman for the agency, told Reuters. 'When the threat arose yesterday, people were still doing their activities on the beach and did not immediately run and they became victims,' he told a news briefing. 'The tsunami didn't come by itself - it dragged cars, logs, houses - it hit everything on land.'
Indonesia is prone to earthquakes because it lies on the Ring of Fire - the line of frequent quakes and volcanic eruptions that circles virtually the entire Pacific rim. More than half of the world's active volcanoes above sea level are part of the ring. Just last month, a series of deadly earthquakes struck the Indonesian island of Lombok. The biggest, on 5 August, killed more than 460 people.
Email of Complaint to the Bus Company
Manager
Dear Mr Jones,
As a taxpaying citizen of Palermo, I am extremely displeased with the level of service offered by our public buses. I understand that transportation infrastructure is complex, but the system by which our city organizes the buses needs to be changed drastically.
My usual bus journey to college takes me over an hour each way, despite the distance being less than 10 kilometers. The buses are often overcrowded, with people having to stand for the entire journey. Additionally, the buses frequently run late or don't show up at all, leaving me stranded and late for my classes.
I would like to see more frequent bus service, with buses running every 15-20 minutes during peak hours. The buses also need to be better maintained, with working air conditioning and comfortable seating. Lastly, I believe the routes should be optimized to reduce travel times for commuters.
I hope you will take my concerns seriously and work to improve the bus service in our city. As a frequent rider, I know these issues are shared by many others. I look forward to your response outlining the steps you will take to address these problems.
Sincerely, [Your Name]
Improving Public Transportation in Palermo
Unreliable Bus Schedules
The author frequently uses public transportation in Palermo, including for their daily commute to work and university. The bus lines are intended to provide convenient access to locations around the city, but this is hindered by unreliable bus schedules. In the past week, the author has experienced six late buses on their commute and one that did not arrive at all.
Potential Improvements
One way to improve the situation would be to add additional bus service. Another potential improvement could be to streamline the way people get on and off the buses, as this currently slows down the system. At the very least, the bus schedule needs to be modified to more accurately reflect when the buses actually arrive.
Significance of the Eraclea Center
The Eraclea Center is a reference for the sports world in terms of technical, recreational, and professional aspects, as well as landscape, energy, environment, lifestyle, and free time.
Letter of Application for an English Teacher
Position
Dear Mrs Bruna Castelli,
I was excited to find the posting for an English as a Second Language teacher at the English Learning Center on Craigslist.com. I am confident that I would make an excellent addition to your teaching team due to my passion for helping students, my teaching and cultural experiences, and my TEFL qualifications.
I have taught ESL to beginner, intermediate, and advanced students of various cultural and linguistic backgrounds in Madrid for one year. Before this, I earned my TEFL certification after completing a 120-hour on-site course. Through these experiences and studies, I have developed critical pedagogic and classroom management skills, along with a passion for teaching English.
I am equipped with the Communicative Teaching Method, which I am excited to apply at the English Learning Center. This method involves interactive, student-centered activities that maximize "student talk time." I scaffold my lessons to include pair and group work, as well as movement around the classroom, engaging students in speaking, grammar, writing, listening, and reading while appealing to diverse learning styles.
Having lived in Italy, I understand both the excitement and challenges that accompany learning a new language and living abroad. In my classes, I typically set aside time for students to share their "highs" and "lows" for the week, supporting their social-emotional well-being as they learn English and deepen their global awareness.
I look forward to discussing your specific needs at the English Language Center and how I can meet them. I would be thrilled to join a team of globally-minded educators dedicated to high-quality language instruction.
Yours sincerely, Stefania Giunta +39 xxxxxxx Email
Letter of Complaint about Train Travel
Experience
Dear Trenitalia,
As a frequent rail traveler, I feel I have a fair understanding of the problems one might encounter when traveling by train. However, my recent cross-
country trip on the Seaside line operated by your company, Anystate Railways, was absolutely unacceptable. I hope your company will take steps to address the major problems I experienced.
First, the train itself was dirty. The bathrooms had toilet paper all over the floor, and the seats were full of crumbs from previous passengers. The windows, which are one of the main draws of train travel, were also streaked with handprints.
Second, the employees on the train were rude. In one case, I politely asked an employee for directions, and they yelled at me because they were on their break, which I did not know as they were still in uniform.
Finally, the delays we encountered were caused by poor planning, not safety concerns. We were delayed because some of your employees had been working too long, so the train literally stopped and sat in the middle of nowhere for no reason. This delay caused me to miss a connection to the next train, and eventually resulted in me taking a bus for the rest of my trip.
I am afraid that if you cannot offer a better level of service, I will have to give up my tradition of travel by rail. I would appreciate any redress you can provide me, if not a refund for the leg of travel you caused me to miss.
Yours faithfully, Stefania Giunta
Arguments For and Against Owning a Mobile
Phone
The advent and rapid evolution of mobile phones has changed the lives, habits, and the working world of most people. Nowadays, it is unthinkable to live without a cell phone, as it has become like a piece of the house that we take with us, making us feel safer and less alone.
Our society has become cell-dependent, with technology, especially smartphones, playing a central role in our daily lives. We use them for messaging, email, and even booking flights, as tickets are now digital rather than paper. Without a mobile phone, we can feel isolated and in danger of losing touch with our connections.
However, the ubiquity of mobile phones also has its downsides. The blurring of work and private life is one issue, as we can be reached by email or messages even on weekends or holidays, making it difficult to truly unplug. Additionally, mobile phones in the hands of children can be a powerful weapon, contributing to the rise of cyberbullying in recent years.
Despite these drawbacks, mobile phones and smartphones have overall improved the world we live in. They allow us to communicate and see people on the opposite side of the planet, to shop without leaving home, and to keep track of our children through apps. If used wisely and responsibly, mobile phones can be very convenient tools that allow us to carry out multiple functions without the need for multiple devices.
