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CHAPTER 1
What, Where, How and When?
What is History? History is the study of change over time , and it covers all aspects of human society. Political, social, economic, scientific, technological, medical, cultural, intellectual, religious and military developments are all part of history.
Why Study History? History is not just about the past. It is about the present. The society we live in has been fashioned by those who came before us. The joys and sorrows of their daily lives, their attempt to grapple with the problems of their time, their discoveries and inventions, slowly transformed human societies. By reading history we can understand how the modern world has emerged over long centuries of development There are several things we can find out — what people ate, the kinds of clothes they wore, the houses in which they lived, in the past.
Where people lived in past? People have lived along the banks of rivers for several hundred thousand years. They were mainly the people who gathered their food (gatherers ). They also hunted animals. Archaeologists have found some of the things hunter-gatherers made and used. It is likely that people made and used tools of stone, wood and bone , of which stone tools have survived best. Some sites are below:
The Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to the northwest are some of the areas where women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago. These were some of the other areas where agriculture developed. The places where rice was first grown are to the north of the Vindhyas. About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks of Indus River.
Later, about 2500 years ago, cities developed on the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries, and along the sea coasts. Sometimes men marched in armies, conquering others' lands. Besides, merchants travelled with caravans or ships, carrying valuable goods from place to place. And religious teachers walked from village to village, town to town, stopping to offer instruction and advice on the way. Finally, some people perhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure, wanting to discover new and exciting places. All these led to the sharing of ideas between people.
How we got our county’s name? The word India comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit. The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar with the Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the east of the river was called India. The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the north¬west, and who are mentioned in the Rigveda , the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago). Later it was used for the country.
How to know about our past? There are several ways of finding out about the past. Manuscripts : o They are the books that were written long ago. o These were usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas. o These books dealt with all kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and practices, the lives of kings, medicine and science. Besides, there were epics, poems, plays. o Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil.
Inscriptions : o These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Sometimes, kings got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read and obey them. o There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and women (including kings and queens) recorded what they did. o For example, kings often kept records of victories in battle
Changing environment Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions. In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands. This in turn led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e. animals that survived on grass. Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and their breeding seasons. It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves. Fishing also became important.
The beginning of farming and herding This was also a time when several grain bearing grasses, including wheat, barley and rice grew naturally in different parts of the subcontinent This may have led people to think about growing plants on their own. In this way people became farmers. People could also attract and then tame animals by leaving food for them near their shelters. The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog. Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals. This is how they became herders
CHAPTER 3
From Gathering to Growing Food
A new way of life When people began growing plants, it meant that they had to stay in the same place for a long time. As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people had to think of ways of storing it. In many areas, they began making large clay pots , or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground. First farmers and herders Archaeologists have found evidence of early farmers and herders. These are found all over the subcontinent. Some of the most important ones are in the north-west, in present-day Kashmir, and in east and south India
Settled life Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses at some sites. For instance, in Burzahom (in present-day Kashmir) people built pit-houses, which were dug into the ground, with steps leading into them. These may have provided shelter in cold weather. Archaeologists have also found cooking hearths both inside and outside the huts, which suggests that, depending on the weather, people could cook food either indoors or outdoors.
Mehrgarh Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where people learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats for the first time in this area. It is one of the earliest villages that we know about. At this site many animal bones were found. Bones of wild animals such as the deer and pig, and also bones of sheep and goat were found.
Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage.
CHAPTER 4
In the earliest cities
Harappa Cities These cities developed about 4700 years ago. These cities were found in the Punjab and Sind in Pakistan, and in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab in India. Archaeologists have found a set of unique objects in almost all these cities : red pottery painted with designs in black, stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, and paralleled sided long stone blades.
Features of Harappan cities Many of these cities were divided into two or more parts. Usually, the part to the west was smaller but higher. Archaeologists describe this as the citadel. Generally, the part to the east was larger but lower. This is called the lower town. Very often walls of baked brick were built around each part. The bricks were so well baked that they have lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath , was built in this area. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions. Other cities, such as Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed. And some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate store houses. Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard. Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water. Many of these cities had covered drains.
Life in the city A Harappan city was a very busy place. There were people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. These were probably the rulers There were scribes, people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals.
The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran. Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka , and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.
Food While many people lived in the cities, others living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. We know from remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard. New tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. Water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing. The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. Some facts: The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil. Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways. The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat. There was a dockyard at Lothal.
The mystery of the end Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities It appears as if the rulers lost control. In any case, the effects of the change are quite clear. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south.
CHAPTER 5
What Books and Burial Tell Us
One of the oldest books in the world There are four of them — the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda includes more than a thousand hymns, called sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praise of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a special drink was prepared. These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). Most of the hymns were composed, taught and learnt by men. A few were composed by women.
Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the form of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn, a dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped as goddesses.
Sanskrit and other languages Indo-European languages : o Sanskrit is part of a family of languages known as Indo-European. o Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to this family. o They are called a family because they originally had words in common. Other families o Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. o For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian family; o The languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family.
Important facts about Vedic Society Vedas suggest that in vedic society horses and cows were valued animals Rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the Sarasvati, are also named in the hymns. The Ganga and Yamuna are named only once. There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, children (especially sons), and horses. Horses were yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which were fought to capture cattle. Battles were also fought for land, which was important for pasture, and for growing hardy crops that ripened quickly, such as barley. Some battles were fought for water, and to capture people. Some of the wealth that was obtained was kept by the leaders, some was given to the priests and the rest was distributed amongst the people. Some wealth was used for the performance of yajnas or sacrifices in which offerings were made into the fire. These were meant for gods and goddesses. Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in some cases, animals. Most men took part in these wars. There was no regular army, but there were assemblies where people met and discussed matters of war and peace.
Varnas In later vedic period The priests divided people into four groups, called varnas. According to them, each varna had a different set of functions.
- The first varna was that of the brahmin. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts.
- In the second place were the rulers, also known as kshatriyas. They were expected to fight battles and protect people.
- Third were the vish or the vaishyas. They were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders.
- Last were the shudras , who had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals.
Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). Pottery : o People made earthen pots. o Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. o One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns
Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahoyanapadas. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. The new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins
Magadh Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Reasons o Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. o Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. o Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. o There were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Rulers o Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas. o Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler.
o He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent Capital o Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. o Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna)
Vajji Vajji with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha. In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men ruled together, each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas.
Taxes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were building huge forts and maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes. Some taxes were o Taxes on crops were the most important o There were taxes on crafts persons o There were also taxes on goods that were bought and sold, through trade o There were taxes on Herders o There were taxes on hunters and gatherers
Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time.
- Growing use of iron ploughshares : This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced.
- People began transplanting paddy : This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived Generally, slave men and women, (dasas and dasis) and landless agricultural labourers (kammakaras) had to do this work
o They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.
Monasteries Many supporters of the monks and nuns, and they themselves, felt the need for permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India.
The spread of Buddhism- Mahayan Buddhism The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who ruled around 1900 years ago. He organised a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important matters. Ashvaghosha , a poet who composed a biography of the Buddha, the Buddhacharita , lived in his court. Ashvaghosha and other Buddhist scholars now began writing in Sanskrit. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism , now developed. This had two distinct features.
- Earlier, the Buddha's presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree.
- The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas. These were supposed to be persons who had attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas
Buddhist pilgrims
As traders journeyed to distant lands in caravans and ships, pilgrims often travelled with them. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims , Fa Xian , who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them
Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India's intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively.
Upanishads Many thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means 'approaching and sitting near' and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning, and participated in debates held in royal courts. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala , who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.
Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis , a group that was part of the Vajji sangha At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.
Teachings of Jainism Mahavira taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest , and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes.
Popularity of Jainism Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.
Ruling vast kingdom The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, crafts persons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler's orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro , and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials.
Megasthenes Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw in Ashokan Empire.
Ashoka's war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa. Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war.
Ashoka's dhamma Ashoka's dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars , instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves
CHAPTER 9
Vital villages and thriving towns
Life in the villages Southern part of the country o There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. o In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar , ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar , and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. Northern part of the country- Gram Bhojaka o In the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. o Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. o In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. o Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. o Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. o He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. o Apart from the gramabhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners.
Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch marked coins. Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins.
Crafts and crafts persons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It developed beginning around 700 BCE, in the late Vedic period, and peaked from c. 500– 300 BCE, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or Mahajanapada in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire.
Guilds of Ancient India Shreni, in the context of Ancient India, was an association of traders, merchants, and artisans. Generally, a separate shreni existed for a particular group of persons engaged in the same vocation or activity. Typically, these groups were egalitarian. They worked in the interest of the people in it. However, there were positions within a Shreni, made to ensure its smooth functioning.
Trade and traders South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones.
The idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita , a sacred book of the Hindus, which is included in the Mahabharata. Those who followed the system of Bhakti emphasised devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess, rather than the performance of elaborate sacrifices. Once this idea gained acceptance, artists made beautiful images of these deities. Bhakti inspired some of the best expressions in art-sculpture, poetry and architecture.
CHAPTER 11
New Empires and Kingdoms
Prashastis We know about Samudragupta from a long inscription, inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. It was composed as a Kavya by Harishena , who was a poet and a minister at the court of Samudragupta. This inscription is of a special kind known as a prashasti, a Sanskrit word, meaning 'in praise of’.
Samudragupta Prashastis Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers, and tells us about Samudragupta's policies towards them.
- The rulers of Aryavarta , the area shaded in green on the map. Here there were nine rulers who were uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta's empire.
- The rulers of Dakshinapatha. Here there were twelve rulers, some of whose capitals are marked with red dots on the map. They surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and he then allowed them to rule again.
- The inner circle of neighbouring states , including Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of gana sanghas in the north- west, marked in purple on the map. They brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court.
- The rulers of the outlying areas , marked in blue on the map, perhaps the descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka, who submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage.
Genealogies Most prashastis also mention the ancestors of the ruler. This one mentions Samudragupta's great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother.
His mother , Kumara devi , belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
Vikram Samvat The era beginning in the 58 BCE is traditionally associated with Gupta king. Chandragupta II , who had founded it as a mark of victory over the Shakas and assumed the title Vikramaditya.
Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita While we can learn about the Gupta rulers from their inscriptions and coins, we can find out about some kings from biographies. Harshavardhana, who ruled nearly 1400 years ago, was one such ruler. His court poet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in Sanskrit. This gives us the genealogy of Harsha, and ends with his becoming king. Xuan Zang, also spent a lot of time at Harsha's court and left a detailed account of what he saw. Although he was successful in the east, and conquered Magadha and probably Bengal also, he was not as successful elsewhere. He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II.
The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin's prashasti The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in south India during this period. The kingdom of the Pallavas spread from the region around their capital , Kanchipuram , to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas , was an important trading centre It developed as a religious centre, with a number of temples. The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another's lands, especially attacking the capital cities, which were prosperous towns. The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We know about him from a prashasti, composed by his court poet Ravikirti. This tells us about his ancestors, who are traced back through four generations from father to son. Pulakeshin evidently got the kingdom from his uncle.
Administration As in the case of earlier kings, land revenue remained important for these rulers, and the village remained the basic unit of administration. Kings adopted a number of steps to win the support of men who were powerful, either economically, or socially, or because of their political and military strength. For instance:
- Some important administrative posts were now hereditary.
- Sometimes, one person held many offices
- Besides, important men probably had a say in local administration. These included the nagara - shreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city , the sarthavaha or leader of the merchant
