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CHAPTER TWO
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY AND THE
RELATIONSHIP WITH THE SYSTEMS THEORY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter One the research and the research problems was stated against the broader background and complexities that influence the problem.
In this chapter the fundamentals of the systems theory and the relationship with environmental scanning will be investigated.
The importance of strategic planning as a major activity of organisational management is increasingly being accepted by both academics and professional managers. Many who have considered the future needs of organisations have argued that a lack of adequate long range and strategic planning would be disastrous for organisations and for the society.
One of the predominant theoretical lines of thinking underpinning much of public relations practice is the systems theory. The theory states that mechanical, organic and social systems (including organisations) can be defined by their interactions with their environment (Gregory 1999: 266).
As strategic planning moves towards maturity, the viewpoint that is increasingly being applied is that of the organisation as an “open system”. Simplistically this notion holds that an organisation’s growth and survival is dependent on the nature of the environment it faces and those which it may face in the future (Fahey, King & Narayanan 1981: 32).
The systems theory entails the interdependent relationship of the parts of an organisation. The systems theory and the information theory contribute to investigate the various characteristics of the physical, biological, social and behavioural phenomena. It is not only communication theories, but also have important implications on communication and other socio-cultural happenings (Littlejohn 1983: 34).
According to the originators of the information theory , Donohue, Olien & Tichenor, it is defined as follows: “As the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to aquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease” (Tichenor et al. 1977: 159-160).
The roots of the information theory are intermingled with the basic transmission model, which conceives communication as essentially the intentional transfer of information from sender to receiver, by way of (physical) channels, which are subject to noise and interference. According to this model, communication is judged by the efficiency and effectiveness in achieving the planned “transfer” (McQuail 1994: 248).
The concept of information has proved difficult to define, because it can be viewed in different ways, but the central element is probably the capacity to “reduce uncertainty”. Information is thus defined by its opposite (randomness or chaos).
The insight which led to the development of information theory was the realisation that all the processes which might be said to convey information are basically selection processes. The mathematical theory of communication provided an objective approach to the analysis of communication texts. The
The systems theory grew exponentially in the 1960’s. This th eory originated as alternative to structural functionalism. It has its origin in the physical sciences, where both the organic and mechanical entities are viewed from the systems terminology. The systems theory regards the society as a big system, compos ed of a number of interdependent parts (Ritzer 1992: 220).
According to Bertalanffy (1968) a system comprises a complex interaction of elements. This description implies that knowledge of parts or elements of a system is not sufficient to understand the whole. It is exactly the interaction between elements that forms each system unique. The sum can be said to be equal to the characteristics of the independent elements as well as the interaction between the elements (Marais 1979: 156).
The properties of the General Systems Theory underwent development and mutual reinforcement with adjacent disciplines such as cybernetics and mathematical information theory. The theory found application in many disciplines. The eclectic nature of General Systems Theory has led to a wide disparity in the constructs that attribute to the theory. Further, General Systems Theory enjoys little empirical verification outside those disciplines that share their origins with the theory. The term “theory” is thus misleading when applied to General Systems Theory, as it is widely accepted as a perspective or approach, and not as a theory (Lubbe & Puth 1994: 42).
It is necessary to investigate the relationship between the parts as well as the relationship of the system with other systems. It is also necessary to look at the inputs in the social system, the way in which these inputs are processed by the society and the outputs that are produced (Ritzer 1992: 220).
A system is a set of objects or entities that work with each other to form a whole. From the most simplistic viewpoint, it can be said that a system consists of four things, the first being objects. The objects are parts, elements or members of the
system. In the second place, the system consists of attributes, or the qualities or characteristics of the system and its objects. In the third place, there are internal relationships between its objects. This characteristic is a fundamental quality of systems. In the fourth place, a system always has an environm ent. Systems do not exist in a vacuum, but are influenced by the environment (Littlejohn 1983: 35).
The systems theory is a product of a variety of scientific ideas, amongst other the information theory, operational research and the economic systems theory that moved from other fields into the sociological arena. These ideas were then adapted to be applicable to social life.
2.3 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEMS THEORY
Bearing in mind that the systems theory has its origin in the sciences and can be applied on all behavioural and social sciences, it provides, in the first place a common way to form a unit. Secondly, the systems theory is multi dimensional and can, therefore, be applied on a large as well as small scale.
In the third place, the systems theory is interested in the variety of relationships between the various aspects of the social world and operates against the analysis of the social world. The argument of the systems theory is that the intrinsic relationship of the parts can not be dealt with outside of the context of the whole (Ritzer 1992: 518).
In the fourth place, the systems theory regards all aspects of the socio-cultural system in process terms, to be precise, as networks of information and communication.
In the fifth place, and maybe most important, it is inherently integrative. It entails the integration of big structures, symbolic systems, action and interaction and
2.3.4 Openness
The systems theory distinguishes between open and closed systems. A closed system is separated from its environment. It is, therefore, subject to the second law of thermodynamics, thus entropic, tending towards maximum disorder. An open system has permeable boundaries that permit the exchange of information, material, or energy with its environment. It therefore has the potential to evolve into greater complexity (Lubbe & Puth 1994: 44)
2.3.5 Adaptability
The systems theory emphasises the dynamic nature of systems, concentrating upon emerging processes rather than static structures. Open systems change and adapt because of their interaction with their environments. These systems respond to environmental conditions, but they also engage actively with the environment (Lubbe & Puth 1994: 44).
2.3.6 Stability and Flexibility
Koestler (1978) believes that the most important properties of systems stem from their hierarchic nature, by being a whole and a part at once. He states that every system possesses two tendencies: an integrative tendency to function as part of the larger whole, and a self-assertive tendency to preserve its individual autonomy.
2.4 OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS
The systems theory distinguishes between open and closed systems. A closed system is isolated and can only react on change within the system. There is no possible influence on the environment. In contrast, the open system is receptive
of inputs of the environment and as a result, conditions within the system are also influenced by influences from outside (Marais 1979: 156).
2.4.1 Open systems
2.4.1.1 Open systems: the organismic model
In open systems, units within an organisation affect and are affected by other units and the organisation as a whole is responsive to environmental change. According to Katz and Khan (1978: 32), organisations are open social systems with emphasis on two aspects (a) system character where movement in one part leads to movement in other parts in predictable fashion and (b) openness to environmental inputs, so that they are constantly in a state of flux.
Organisations are open systems that are formed by the relatively stable interaction patterns of their members. The interaction patterns are the products of communication, which is an essential component of organisational functioning and not an independent variable.
An open system is one that receives content and energy from its environment and also send content and energy to its environment. The open system is focussed on life and growth. Biological, psychological and social systems follow an open model (Littlejohn 1983: 35).
The key elements of open systems according to Katz and Khan (1978: 32) are:
- Input: without which a system runs down (entropy). These inputs can be the system’s own output (for example money) or from the wider environment outside the system.
- Throughput (or transformation): the process of transforming inputs into outputs (for example making a product).
interpreted in accordance with the meaning it holds for the actors involved” (Gregory 1999: 268).
2.4.2 Mechanistic or closed systems
Early in the development of management theory mechanistic or closed systems concepts were used to understand effective management. These theories focused on how to manage a unit in an organisation itself without considering relationships with other units or with organisations’ environment (Gregory 1999: 267).
These systems were concerned more with the internal workings of the organisation and paid little attention to external environmental matters. In a closed system there are no interaction. It moves to progressive internal chaos. The clos ed system -model is often applicable to a physical system.
Angelopulo (in Lubbe & Puth 1994) uses the terms “introverted” and “extroverted”. Introversion is the perception of a system as one which is predisposed to operate as a static whole which remains unchanged through time, as a fixed structure, and with an emphasis upon the importance of internal phenomena in the relationship of the system with its environment. Extroversion is perception of a system as one that is predisposed to operate as an adaptable part of a larger system, with an emphasis upon the importance of the environment in the system-environment relationship.
According to Ritzer (1992: 519), the three types of systems also differ in the extent that they are open or closed, that is, the degree of interaction with aspects of the larger environment. An open system tends to be better to selectively react to a larger variety and detail of variety of the environment. Mechanical systems tend towards being closed, organic systems more open and socio-cultural systems the most open of the three.
Closed systems do not exchange energy, content or information with the environment. Open systems, on the other hand, move outside of its borders to the surrounding environment (Turner 1991: 120).
The comprehension of equal finality is of importance here. It refers to the fact that the condition of a system on a given moment is rather independent of the organisation of the elements at the start. Equal finality is more typical of an open system than a closed system (Marais 1979: 156).
2.5 COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS
Most definitions of communication explicitly or implicitly state that communication is a process. Process implies movement, change and the interaction between parts of the whole. These meanings cannot be related to the fixed description of communication as transmitter, message, medium and receiver. Systems approach can be said to be an attempt to clear the idea of communication as a process (Marais 1979: 155).
Recent trends indicate a clear shift in preference in using the term corporate communication rather than the traditional public relations. The latter term suffers from negative associations with the way in which the function was practised in the past. Modern definitions of the function indicate that three key terms represent the essence of corporate communication as a management function. It applies to all kinds of organisations; it entails the management of communication between an organisation and its internal and external stakeholders; and being a management function, it is far more that a mere collection of communication techniques (Steyn & Puth 2000: 6).
In this research the term communication and public relations are used inter- changeably, although the preference is for the term communication.
2.6 THE SYSTEMS APPROACH AND ENVIRONM ENTAL SCANNING
According to Gould (1977: 90) “Extinction is the fate of most species, usually because they fail to adapt rapidly enough to changing conditions of climate and competition.”
Gould’s (1977) essay on evolution repeatedly conveys the same message. Organisms that cannot change fast enough to cope with rapid environmental change or competition will become extinct.
Social organisations often behave in ways similar to biological organisms. As the changes occurring around us seemingly accelerate, it is imperative that we carefully monitor the major trends that may affect us and evaluate appropriate strategies of adaptation. If we do not heed the futurists and attempt to adapt, we are destined, like the dinosaur, to become extinct (Gould 1977: 91).
Organisations should know that they are heeding for a crises if the speed of change inside the organisation is slower than the speed of change outside the organisation.
It has been noted that the organisation which has the greatest potential for ongoing success in the exchange of values with the environment is one that interacts actively with its environment for the mutual benefit of both organization and environment. Such organisations can be described as actively outward orientated. Because this condition is a state of being, it is possible that it could exist without the active intervention of a facilitating agent. Without such an agent, however, it is possible that management and staff would pursue objectives closely aligned to their specific organisational functions, and ignore those related to a holistic organisational policy (Lubbe & Puth 1994).
The degree to which the organisation is actively outward orientated depends largely on the extent to which management and the public relations personnel perceive their organisation to be a whole comprising parts which are hierarchically ordered, which works towards certain ends, is relatively open to its environment, and is adaptable (Lubbe & Puth 1994).
A systems approach implies an understanding of the “glue” which holds organisational systems together – the communication process and the underlying culture that exists within the organisation. Because public relations from this perspective incorporates aspects such as assimilation and dissemination of information, change and involvement with extremely complex phenomena such as attributes and values, some understanding of these processes is called for. The public relations practitioner must know the ends towards which the organisation strives – especially those aimed at the attainment of environmentally sources values. This implies a close understanding of and interaction with management (Lubbe & Puth 1994).
According to Morrison & Renfro (1984: 49) given the accelerating pace of change, planners and the organisations they serve found that, increasingly, emerging issues in the outside world had a greater impact on the organisation’s
future than internal issues.
The four systems concepts of input, throughput, output and feedback are also relevant to understanding the relationship between systems theory and environmental scanning. The contribution of corporate communication mostly focused on the throughput and output phase. Input (research, including environmental scanning) on strategic level was missing in the past.
In relating these concepts to corporate communication, information ( input ) can be obtained by doing research (such as environmental scanning) in order to
The correct use and application of environmental scanning can be used as an answer to organisations to deal with change and the impact thereof on the company. Environmental scanning is a process by which an organisation learns about events and trends in the internal and external environment. It helps establishes relationships between these trends and considers the main applications for problem identification and decision making.
2.7 CONCLUSION
In Chapter Two the theories used as framework for this study were discussed. The systems theory and the information gap theory provide the theoretical base for this research.
The systems theory states that organisations are effective when they survive in their environment and successfully bring in resources necessary for their survival. The systems theory, therefore, adds the environment to the equation of organisational effectiveness, but it is limited because survival is a weak goal. The systems theory also defines the environment in vague terms. It does not answer the question of how an organisation determines what elements of the environment are important for its success (Grunig & Huang 2000: 31).
It is clear that the fundamentals of environmental scanning link very closely with the idea of the systems theory. Future, financial and technological trend analysis forms part of environmental scanning. These future trends must be incorporated in the planning et cetera of the company or organisation.
In Chapter Three, the development and importance of communication research receives attention. The communication professional and research are also addressed. The importance and measurement of relationships in communication, reputation management and knowledge management are also discussed.
