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CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF MASS
COMMUNICATION THEORIES
3.1 Introduction
Mass communication is a very complex system and has come a very long way over the years. Various communication researchers have developed different theories while exploring the relationship between mass media and media audience. Newbold (2002) opined that throughout the history of media research, a prevailing concern has been about media‟s influence upon knowledge, beliefs and behavior of individuals. Baran (2002) stated that different mass communication theories explains and predicts social phenomena in relation with communication process. These theories try to relate mass communication to different aspects of individuals which includes personal and cultural lives or social systems in which they are living. While explaining the importance of theories, Newsman and Newsman (1986) mentioned that theories are systems of concepts that provide a framework for organizing and interpreting observations. Through theories, it is possible to identify theorderly relationships linked with varied events.
Therefore, an attempt has also been made in this chapter to give a brief historical overview of media effects theories emphasizing on various communication developments which took place in the 20thcentury. Although many theories have been developed over the period of time but there is no single theory which can be universally accepted. Most of the communication researchers have tried to observe the effects on masses keeping in consideration the social and psychological changes that occur on mass media audience. While understanding different types of media effects, investigators observed that media messages have several effects on masses.
As opined by Beryant (2008) in the Figure 3.1, media effects are often classified into five categories: Behavioral, Attitudinal, Cognitive, Emotional and Physiological effects. The author argues that different media messages leads to different media effects on masses such as Behavioral effects could result in some kind of action, Attitudinal effect might change the beliefs and attitude of audience, Cognitive effects brings change in their thinking process and Physiological or Emotional effects may cause some kind of feeling or physical body reactions.
Figure 3.1 Media Effects on Audience
(Source: Beryant, 2008)
The author has also taken into consideration various other media effects such as immediate vs. long- term, beneficial vs. detrimental, intentional vs. accidental while exploring impact of media messages on large, heterogeneous audience.
The sociological approach to mass communication theories is based on the assumption that there exists a definite relationship between media usage and individuals. Therefore, various theories of Mass Communication like Hypodermic Needle Theory, Attitude Change Theory, Two Step Flow Theory, Cultivation theory, and Dependency theory, Uses and Gratification Theory and Agenda Setting Theory have been discussed in this chapter to lay a theoretical foundation of mass media theories.
Given that this study aims to understand the nutritional status of adolescents‟ vis-à-vis changing media technologies, the historical progression of theories reflects the powerful/
- results when masses do some action after receiving the messages from media
Behavioral Effects
- take place when messages from media change the opinions, beliefs of the mass audience.
Attitudinal Effects
- are those effects when media messages changes the thinking process of the audience.
Cognitive Effects
- take place when media messages create certain feelings such as fear, anxiety, etc in consumers.
Emotional Effects
- results when media consumption leads to changes in stimulation or other physical bodily reactions.
Physiological Effects
- various other effects such as immediate vs. long- term, beneficial vs. detrimental, intentional vs. accidental are also considered by investigators who tend investigate media effects.
Several other typologies of media effects
The impact of media on the masses is broadly divided into three main categories. They are as follows:
Powerful effects,
Minimum effects,
Cumulative effects.
3.2.1 Powerful-Effects Paradigm
The study of media effects began intensely somewhere in the 1920s and 1930s. The hypodermic needle theory is considered as one of the first general theories which tried to explain the effects of media on masses. This theory was propounded by Harold Lasswell in
- The hypodermic theory is known by different names by different scholars for e.g the “bullet theory”, (Schramm, 1971, p.253), the “hypodermic- needle” theory (Berlo, 1960, p.27), or the “Stimulus- response” theory (DeFleur and Ball - Rokeach, 1989, p.161).
3.2.1.1 Core Assumption
Harold has tried to expose the media effects and the thinking of individuals living in that era.
He observed that in 1920s and 1930s the media had powerful, direct and immediate effects. He believed that audience is passive and vulnerable. Using the metaphor as a reference Harold explained the tenets of the theory by comparing the medium with bullet. He stated that just like the bullet is fired from the gun, in the same way messages from media are shot in the minds of the masses, hitting directly the target audience with desired effects. The tenets of the theory argued that media has effects on masses. These effects are direct, immediate and powerful effects. The study of media effects that developed during the 1920s and 1930s was one of the powerful effects. Mass media messages act as a bullet or as a needle, shooting directly in the thoughts of the individuals and consequently changing the behaviour of the public.
Figure: 3.2 Magic bullet theory model
As mentioned by Katz and Lazarsfled (1955) in the figure above that though the individuals are isolated people living in society but they represent masses and the effects of media messages on them are uniform, direct and immediate. Harold has used the words „Bullet‟ and „Needle‟ to explain the tenets of the theory. He asserted that messages from the media is injected directly but uniformly in the minds of the heterogeneous audience just like a injection is injected or bullets are fired into the body of a person in order to have direct and immediate results.
Several developments during that period supported the powerful influence of media on behaviour change of the masses, the use of media by advertisers in Europe and propagandists in Russia and then the chain of Payne Fund studies was conducted in the United States in the begning of 1930s. The application of Magic Bullet was also seen in 1938, when the „War of the Worlds‟ broadcast became ‘ Panic Broadcast‟. The effects of Panic Broadcast made history in the area of powerful media effects leading theorists to consider it as the standard example of the Magic Bullet Theory.
Two more communication researchers, Walter Lippmann and Harold Lasswell also supported the beliefs of the theory. Walter believed that society sees the world in the manner formed mostly by the media and Harold Lasswell has emphasized on the „effect‟ while explaining the communication process.
3.2.1.2 Scope and Application This theory was referred by the researcher in the present study also at different levels of analysis. The researcher has formulated the following hypotheses in the Introduction chapter
Media Messages acting as Bullets on isolated individuals’ constituting a mass
The theories of individual selectivity have laid emphasis on the different aspects of selectivity. They have also tried to depict the role of selectivity while explaining the communication process. The theories of individual selectivity believes that individuals would expose, perceive and retain only those messages which support their beliefs and attitudes thus rejecting the powerful effects of media on audience.
Figure 3.3: Individual Selectivity Selective Exposure Theory: observes that people tend to expose themselves selectively only to those messages which are in accordance with their beliefs and attitudes and they have a tendency to ignore those messages which seem to challenge their beliefs. Selective Perception Theory: observes that people perceive same message differently. The theory notes that audience is heterogeneous audience i.e. they belong to different socio – economic strata. The messages delivered by media are perceived differently according to the audience disposition. Selective Retention Theory: believes that individuals would retain only those messages which support their beliefs and attitudes.The messages which are not consistent with their views are not retained by individuals.
Therefore, selective exposure and selective perception, selective retention also rejects the powerful effects of media on masses.
DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) have identified three types of processes that have replaced the assumption of powerful effects of Magic Bullet Theory in the middle of the 20th^ century.
Figure 3.4: Three types of processes
(Source: DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, 1989)
The above Figure depicts that there are various factors that may occur between media and masses. For instance, the individual differences factor argues that identical mass media messages might influence heterogeneous audience in a different way as they belong to different socio - income background. It was further stated that individuals belong to different cultures and have different social relationships with other members in the culture. Therefore, the selection of messages also depends on their social differentiation.
3.2.2.3 Scope and Application The concept of this theory has been applied in the present study also and the researcher has tried to analyze and depict the following hypotheses.
Adolescents belonging to different socio- economic backgrounds have different media need. Occupation, income and educational qualifications of parents of government and private school going adolescents affect their media habits. Adolescents belonging to various socio-economic strata of society have different media needs.
In application, the theory has a tremendous potential and scope in the field of health education. It could be a valuable tool for health seekers in developing and disseminating health information to adolescents belonging to different economic strata. The theory could be used constructively in defining selection processes of the individuals. It would also help the policy maker to design the media message according to the selection process of individual.
The above figure 3.5 depicts how audience develops behavioural patterns due to the combination of various personal and environmental factors. The behavioural change in an individual is a continuous process which depends upon the three factors i.e. environment factors, personal factors and behaviors. A person‟s behavior is affected by cognitive, affective and biological actions and different environment factors such as social and physical.
3.2.3.2 Scope and Application Adolescents are the most vulnerable community and are targeted especially by advertisers. Adolescents observe and copy the models. Some of them even force their parents to buy the product. Therefore, while considering Social Learning Theory the researcher has tried to analyze adolescence exposure to media/advertisements/video games influencing their attitudes, behaviours and eating habits. The efforts made by Bandura have encouraged many researches to study the learning behaviour of individuals and their findings also support the tenets of Social Learning Theory. Field (2001) did a survey on adolescents. The findings of the survey reported that reading magazines changed the perception about their physical appearance of 60% female adolescents and 47% of the females reported that reading magazines created desire to loose weight by way of dieting so as to get the same figure as portrayed in media as ideal body. On the other hand males wanted to gain weight and have muscular body by adding food supplements in their daily meals.
Adolescents, especially girls, often get disappointed with their physical appreance when they compare themselves with pencil thin models shown in all kinds of media. Levine and Smolak (2002) mentioned that female adolescents during early years of adolescence when read magazines or watch advertisements develop body dissatisfaction as they want to have figure which is being portrayed in media as ideal body or perfect figure. However males tend to move in a opposite direction than females. They follow a regime which would lead to muscularity.
Keeping in mind the behaviour change which media brings Social Learning Theory is very relevant in the present study and also in health communication. Somasundaram (2005) also supports the view that theory first of all understands the behavioural change which includes cognitive and emotional aspects and then the tenets of the theory provide various ways for new behavioural study in health education.
Therefore, Social Learning Theory can further be applied for designing various adolescent health campaigns and health behaviour programs so as to bring behavioural and social change
among adolescent‟s vis-à-vis changing media technologies. The theory can be exceptionally fruitful in developing techniques which can promote positive behaviour change among adolescents while living in the digital world.
3.2.4 Two Step Flow Theory/ Personal Influence Theory
3.2.4.1 The limited–Effects Model
The newer research of the limited effect model/Personal Influence Theory ushered in a new perspective about media effects. Lazarsfled renowned name in the history of media effects observed that media has limited and indirect effects on masses. The tenets of this theory about media effects was contrary to the views of Bullet theory which assumed that media has
powerful and direct effects.
3.2.4.2 Core Assumption
Paul Lazarsfled‟s contributions in the field of communication research were many and varied: The most well-known study which resulted in the scholarly era of the minimal effects of media was the study done in the 1940‟s. Lazarsfled et al. (1944) during the Presidential election in the United States wanted to find out the impact of media i.e. radio and print in the Erie Country (Ohio) on the voting behaviour of masses. They found that the mass media had small direct effects on the voting behaviour of the masses. The results of the study were published in the book in 1944, named, The People’s Choice. The book highlighted that people‟s choices in voting behaviour were influenced more by interpersonal communication
than mass media.
Another well–known study conducted by Lazarsfeld was the Decatur (Illinios) study which
further sought understanding of the Two Step Flow of communication. In 1955, Lazarsfeld and his colleague Elihu Katz published the work in a book named, Personal Influence. The book illustrated the importance and role of opinion leaders in disseminating the information from mass media to masses. The author has emphasized the fact that opinion leaders through interpersonal communication influence the opinion of the masses more than mass media communication.
However, the above figure 3.6 depicts that the effect of media messages on masses is not direct. Opinion leaders who are considered respected and experienced people of the society expose themselves more to mass media messages than masses. Masses constitute audience who are heterogeneous in nature and live in various groups. Opinion leaders through interpersonal communication come in contact with different audience and disseminate the media messages. The term personal influence was used in the theory so as to explain how media messages are interpreted by opinion leaders. The interpreted messages through interpersonal communication influence the decision making of masses more than mass communication. In comparision to formal, impersonal, structured and indirect messages of mass media, the messages of interpersonal communication causes more behavioural change as they are more personal and informal (Katz 1973a).
3.2.4.3 Scope and Application Lazarsfeld findings were very useful during that period and remains so today. The canons of two step flow theory have been able to remain relevant over the years, despite the development which has taken place in the field of communication technologies.
Therefore, the tenets of the theory have been applied to the present study also. The researcher has also tried to find out the role of opinion leaders i.e. teachers, parents, dieticians and doctors in schools. The researcher has also tried to analyze and compare whether any efforts were made by the opinion leaders to create health awareness among adolescents in governments and private schools.
However, due to widespread reach and change in communication technologies, it is neither feasible nor possible that the opinion leaders would replace media but they can definitely play a positive role in spreading media literacy and creating health awareness among adolescents, especially in suburban areas of the country. Therefore, the tenets of Two Step Flow Theory support the perspective of the researcher that in order to promote health and well being among adolescents, a multi- faceted approach of media literacy programs should be adopted at various levels by opinion leaders.
At the Individual Level
An attempt should be made at home by parents as well as by adolescents to limit the amount of media use. Opportunities for physical activity should be sought in regular daily events such as walking to school and taking part in sports. Families should make efforts of eating meals together and having healthy conversations at meal times.
At the School Level
a. Teachers as Opinion Leaders to Adolescent: Adolescents spend a large amount of time in school and therefore teachers as opinion leaders can play a crucial role in adolescent‟s decision making process.Through interpersonal communication, they can create awareness among adolescents about health and media issues. Therefore, teachers should be well aware of the impact of different media on adolescents. Beresin (1999) has also opined that teachers and school social workers can request material to conduct classroom activities regarding media messages.
b. Role of Ministry: The Ministry of Education should promote community based healthy eating campaign similar to those currently offered in support of literacy and health. Government and Non Government Organizations should act as catalytic agents to promote more and more quality oriented nutrition and media literacy programs so that adolescents become critical viewers as well as consumers.
At the Societal Level
Health care professionals such as doctors, dieticians and community organizations like NGO‟s at the interpersonal level need to promote health and well being among adolescents by visiting schools regularly. They should clearly demonstrate the way in which adolescents spend their time with different media and its effects on their well being.
3.2.5 Cumulative-Effects Paradigm cultivation
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, due to increase in the popularity and usage of television by masses, concern of the researchers shifted to television and its effects on society. Media research moved backward and forward while exploring the impact of media on masses i.e. it moved from notions that media has immediate, direct and powerful effects to the notion that long exposure to media creates long term cumulative effects. One of the most well-known theories of long-term cumulative effect goes with the perspective of Cultivation Theory. This theory was propounded by George Gerbner.
3.2.5.1 Core Assumption
Gerbner conducted a survey named Cultural Indicators, in the mid 1960s. The research was carried out so as to observe how television affects viewers‟ viewpoint about the world. The basic assumption which the cultivation research revealed was that long persistent exposure of
A series of exemplar studies have been carried out and expanded beyond television viewing. The focus of these studies was to observe the long-term effects of media. Various researchers have tried to examine the cultivation effects of media on individuals with other aspects such as effects of exposure of advertisements on adolescents, cultivation effects in playing games on internet etc.
Numerous research projects conducted by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1996) have reported that adolescents who watch more television develop more unhealthy eating habits and pressurize their parents to buy food products which are advertised in television than those adolescentswho watch little television.
Another study which supported this notion was conducted on young women in a sub-urban community in Fiji to investigate the impact of television. Harrison and Hefner (2006) argued that pre-adolescent girls often desire to have thin body and want to look like models when they attain maturity. Therefore this kind of notion in the mind of young girls causes disordered eating and unhealthy habits. Hence watching television is associated with unhealthy lifestyle and poor nutritional status.
Similarly, the tenet of cultivation theory has been taken as base to do the analysis in the present study also. The researcher has applied and extended this theory to other forms of media i.e. newspaper, radio, internet, mobile and iPod, while analyzing nutritional status of adolescent‟s vis-à-vis changing media technologies.
As stated by Gerbner et al. (1976) reflection of stereotypes and models and content in various media would unknowingly alter and change the attitudes and behaviours of adolescents. Similarly, taking into consideration the tenets of cultivation theory and number of studies done on the long term effects of media, the researcher has tried to analyze and interpret the following hypotheses:
Over exposure to media has created problems like obesity, stress and sedentary habits etc among adolescents. The changing media technologies are having significant impact on adolescent‟s health.
3.2.6 Dependency Theory
Dependency theory is another mass communication theory which explored the effects of media on audiences. Media dependency theory was developed by Ball-Rokeach et.al. (1976).
3.2.6.1 Core Assumption
Ball-Rokeach and others in the dependency model argued that masses are extremely dependent on media for various needs. One form of dependency on media is get information about the world, another type of dependency on media is the need of individuals for knowledge so as to act meaningfully and effectively in the society, and thirdly audience are dependent on media for entertainment, to get relaxation from daily problems and tensions.
Figure: 3.8: A Model of Media Dependency Relationships
(Source: Ball-Rokeach, 1976)
Figure: 3.9: Effects of the dependency theory (Source: DeFleur & Ball Rokeach, 1989)
The above model illustrates the elaborated and more specific effects of the dependency theory.
The above figure illustrates media usage by individuals in different steps. Firstly, the individual will select media based on selectivity process. After selecting the media, the author argued, greater the intensity of relevant media, the greater will be cognitive and affective arousal. The cognitive and affective arousal causes behavioural effects in individuals.
3.2.6.2 Scope and Application
Different studies have been carried out to explore media dependency, especially among adolescents. Littleton and Ollendick ( 2003 ) mentioned that female adolescents use print media, especially magazines for information pupose. Young teenage girls often read magazines to seek information how to look better physically. They read various messages and
implement those messages in the daily regime so as to look beautiful and physically attractive. Ricciardelli et al. (2000) argued that youth are using media quite frequently they may often access media to find solutions or seek information regarding the changes and developments that take place in their bodies during adolescence.
Similarly, the researcher has applied the tenets of dependency theory in the present study also. The researcher has tried to analyze the entire study on the basis of three basic needs of adolescents i.e. entertainment, information and communication. The researcher has applied these needs to the other forms of media so as to critically analyze nutritional status of adolescent‟s vis-à-vis media technologies.
3.2.7 Uses and Gratification Theory
Over the years, the researchers began to analyze why and what audience use media instead of what effects media has on audience. The uses and gratifications theory holds a significant position in the area of mass media effects research as it focuses on audience. As stated by
Katz (1959) unlike other media-effect theories, which focused mainly on what media does to people, Uses and Gratification theory focuses on what do people do with media.
3.2.7.1 Core Assumption
The basic tenet of this theory argues that audiences are active audience and use media to fulfill their various needs and when their needs are fulfilled they get gratification. Uses and Gratifications theory tenets audience choose media to satisfy various needs. The theory argues that media choices are made by audience according to their needs.
The tenets of uses and gratification were different from the ideas of traditional theories of media. The theory believed that audiences are active audience. They are homogeneous in nature and use media as they get gratification. The focus of this theory was primarily on what people do with media than what media do to media audience (Katz, 1959).
