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**5. Career Development
- Theories of career development** Although many theories have been presented to explain how career development occurs; five theories are most influential today. These are the theories of Donald Super, John Holland, Linda Gottfredson, John Krumboltz and Mark Savickas. Other theories have historical value and newer ones are introduced regularly. Some of the theories presented in the section on Human Growth and Development also have implications for career development such as that of Erikson and Levinson. 2. Classification of career theories: Actuarial and Developmental Actuarial: theorists from this perspective focused on some 'structure' of the individual such as needs, traits, interests, etc., and designed a theory of how career development occurs from that basis. Examples of actuarial theories are: trait-factor and needs-based theories. Developmental: theorists from this perspective viewed career development as occurring over time, usually through stages. This process of career development could include various 'structures' such as self-concept and need. 3. Donald Super (developmental approach to careers) Super preferred a broad self-description and labeled himself a differential- developmental-social-phenomenological psychologist. Evolving over time, his Early Super His early conception of career development (1950's and 1960's) included vocational development stages and vocational development tasks. The vocational development stages are: Growth (birth to 14-15). Development of capacity, interests and self-concept. Exploratory (15-24).Tentative choices made. Establishment (25-44). Trial (in work situations) and stabilize. d.Maintenance (45- 64). Continual adjustment process. Decline (65+). Preretirement, work output issues and retirement. He later changed decline to disengagement. According to Super, self-concept was implemented in choice of career. He identified the concept of career maturity and later renamed it career adaptability to make it less age-related. Super also identified five vocational development tasks. These are: Crystallization (ages 14-18)-formulating a general vocational goal through awareness. Specification (18-21)-moving from a tentative to a specific vocational choice. Implementation (21-24)-completing training and entering employment. Stabilization (24-35)-confirming a preferred choice by performing the job. Consolidation (35+)-becoming established in a career; advancing; achieving status.
The ages of Super's stages and tasks no longer apply because some people have gaps in their employment (careers) and recycle. This model was initially focused primarily on white, middle-class, college-educated males. Super recognized that we can repeat or recycle through these developmental tasks.
Later Super By the 1970's, Super viewed career development as more holistic, that is, involving more of the individual than just the job or career. He presented the concept of life-career rainbow which included the life span with its major stages and life space which consists of the roles we play. The nine major roles we play in life are: Child Student Citizen, Spouse Homemaker Parent, Worker Leisurite Pensioner. Roles are played out in four theaters which are: Home community school and workplace. Super developed the Archway Model as a graphic representation of the many determinants that comprise one's self-concept. One pillar of the archway represents the factors and variables within the individual that influence career development such as needs, aptitudes, interests and achievements. The other pillar includes external factors such as family, community, and labor market. At the top of the arch between the two pillars is the Self of the individual. Super is responsible for the Career Pattern Study which examined the vocational behavior of 9th graders all the way into their 30s. Those adolescents who were career mature and achieving in high school tended to be more career mature and successful as young adults.
4. John Holland (a typology) Although much of Holland's theory is actuarial or structural in approach, he goes to considerable lengths to explain how types develop. Furthermore, types provide the energy and motivation to do certain things, learn certain skills, associate with particular people, and avoid other skills as well as people. To Holland, career choice is an expression of personality. We choose a career based on the stereotypes we hold about different jobs or careers. Holland identified six modal personal orientations (personality types) which developed based on genetic factors, environment, and parental influences. Holland's six styles or types are: Realistic: aggressive; prefers explicit tasks requiring physical manipulation; has poor interpersonal skills. Examples: mechanic, technician. Investigative: intellectual; prefers systematic, creative investigation activities; has poor persuasive and social skills. Examples: chemist, computer programmer. Artistic: imaginative; prefers self-expression via physical, verbal or other materials; dislikes systematic and ordered activities. Examples: artist, editor.
- Orientation to social valuation (9-13). There is greater awareness of values held by peers, family and community; occupations vary greatly in social value -desirability.
- Orientation to internal unique self (14+). In occupational selection as a teenager or adult, internal factors such as aspirations, values, and interests are critical. Young children (ages 6-8, and even younger according to some research) tend to choose occupations which fit their gender. Preadolescents tend to choose occupations which have social values consistent with their perceived social class. They may also rule out occupations which are inappropriate because of a mismatch in ability, intelligence level or cultural factors. In the teenage years and later, self-awareness of personal characteristics helps determine which occupation is selected. Individuals develop a cognitive map of occupations based on sex-type, social value (prestige), and field of work (interest area). A zone of acceptable alternatives is identified and occupations within this range are consistent with the individual's self- concept. 6. John Krumboltz (learning theory of career counseling -- LTCC) Krumboltz used Bandura's social learning theory to identify the principal concepts for this theory of career development and career counseling. Reinforcement theory, cognitive information processing, and classical behaviorism are important concepts. Career development and career decision making involve the following: Genetic endowments and special abilities. This includes inherited qualities which may set limits on career opportunities. Environmental conditions and events. Events and circumstances influence skill development, activities and career preferences. Natural resources, economic conditions, and legislation may be involved. Instrumental and associative learning experiences. This is learning through reactions to consequences, results of actions, and through reactions to others. Reinforcement and non-reinforcement of behaviors and skills are important. Associative learning experiences come from associations learned through observations and written materials. They influence an individual's perceptions. Task approach skills (problem-solving skills, work habits, etc.). Skills acquired such as problem-solving, work habits, mental sets, and emotional and cognitive responses. Learning experiences over the lifetime influence career choice. An individual's generalizations and beliefs may be problematic and may need to be challenged by the career counselor. New beliefs and courses of action may need to be learned and substituted. The Career Beliefs Inventory of Krumboltz may be used to identify clients’ mental barriers preventing them from taking action. Unplanned and chance events will influence an individuals' career development, and such occurrences should be expected and taken advantage of Krumboltz refers to these events as 'planned happenstance.'
7. Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma These developmentalists first presented their theory in 1951 and believed occupational choice progressed through three periods: Fantasy (birth to 11). Play becomes work oriented. Tentative (11-17). Four stages in this period are: interest, capacity, value, and transition. Realistic (17+). Three stages in this period are: exploration, crystallization, and specification. The Ginzberg group based their early theoretical formulation on a small group of middle-class males who supposedly had freedom of choice in occupation. Decision making was important and was influenced by adolescent adjustment patterns. Later, Ginzberg agreed that occupational decision making was a lifelong process. Their theory stimulated further research. Super, for example, found many concepts in the Ginzberg et al. theory useful in the formulation of his own career development theory which he presented a few years later. 8. Ann Roe (needs approach) Roe believed that genetic factors, environmental experiences, and parent-child relations influenced the needs structure each child developed. Parental influences and early childhood experiences were viewed as major determiners. Later, occupational selection would be a function of those needs. Roe believed that careers were chosen to meet needs through either person oriented or non-person oriented occupations. This part of the theory was not well supported by research. Roe developed a field-by-level classification of occupations. She identified: Six levels: 1. Professional and managerial (highest level) 2. Professional and managerial (regular) 3. Semi-professional and managerial 4. Skilled 5. Semi-skilled 6. Unskilled Eight fields: 1. Service 2. Business contact 3. Managerial 4. General cultural 5. Arts and entertainment 6. Technology 7. Outdoor 8. Science The last three contained the non-person oriented occupations.
11. Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy Many concepts are based on Bandura's social learning theory. A cornerstone of that theory is self-efficacy which postulates that an individual's expectations will influence whether a behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how persistent the individual will be in the face of barriers. In short, self-efficacy theory is an individual's belief that he or she can perform some task or be successful in some endeavor. In the career domain, these beliefs will influence choice, performance and persistence. Nancy Betz and Gail Hackett, and others, believe these concepts explain gender differences in career choice. Society empowers males, through expectations, to pursue a wider range of occupations than females and this may help explain why more men pursue math and science majors and careers. Personal agency reflects an individual's ability and power to achieve objectives. Self- efficacy can be strengthened through learning experiences such as: personal performance accomplishments vicarious learning social persuasion physiological states and reactions The career counselor can structure these learning approaches to increase a client's self-efficacy. 12. Constructivism and contextualism The constructivist approach suggests that individuals construct their own reality or truth through their own way of organizing information. This becomes a very subjective phenomenon and focuses on how individuals extract meaning from their present situation. Contextualism implies that career development is a constant interplay of forces within the individual, within the environment, and the interaction between the two. One cannot separate (remove) individuals from their environments (context) and the individuals' perceptions and information organizing processes create their reality. The goal for the career counselor is to encourage the client to make meaning of his or her situation. Because context is so important, unraveling (dissecting) events into very small pieces may be counterproductive and reduce the possibility for constructing personal meaning. The focus of attention is actions which are cognitively and socially based. These actions are viewed from three perspectives: the behavior which occurs, the internal state (affect), and their social meaning. 13. Mark Savickas Savickas is a proponent of a postmodern career counseling approach based on career construction theory. The career counselor is not viewed as the expert with infallible scores from inventories but rather as an active agent in assisting career clients to make sense of their life and work in order to be successful and satisfied. Recently, Savickas presented the concept of life design as a paradigm for career intervention. In this paradigm, individuals construct careers through identifying and presenting small stories
in response to a few questions. These stories are deconstructed with the help of the counselor and then reconstructed. Using these small stories, the counselor co- constructs with the client a life portrait or identity narrative and assists the individual to construct this career story into a new episode. This life design paradigm focuses on contextual possibilities, nonlinear progress, dynamic processes, multiple perspectives, and personal patterns which represent the world of work today. Intakes into account the changing nature of the workplace including the need for workers to be flexible, continuously employable, and have the ability to be temporary, contingent, casual, freelance, and self-employed.
14. H. B. Gelatt Gelatt focuses on the decision-making process and outlines a fairly traditional five step process: Recognize a need to make a decision Collect data and look at courses of action Besides looking at courses of action, examine potential outcomes and their probability Attend to your value system Evaluate and make a decision (choose), and the decision can be investigatory or permanent His later model of career decision making is called 'Positive Uncertainty’ and is viewed as a whole-brained approach. Rational and intuitive components must be considered in decision making. 15. Trait and Factor (career counseling approach) This approach is sometimes called an actuarial or matching approach. The trait-factor approach was developed by Frank Parsons (Father of Guidance). Parsons wrote: Choosing a Vocation which was published in 1909 the year after he died. Trait-factor means you: study the individual (trait) survey occupations (factors) match the person with an occupation (using true reasoning) This approach stimulated the development of assessment techniques (tests and inventories) and occupational information gathering. E. G. Williamson (1930's) refined the 'trait-factor' approach. To him, the career counseling approach involved six steps: analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up. 16. Sociological or situational models of career development There are sociological reasons why individuals choose the work that they do. People choose what they know about, i.e., occupations family members may expose them to. Ethnic group membership and cultural factors influence individuals toward and away from certain jobs and careers. Other factors which may influence occupational choice
21. Career development Career development is a lifelong process in which we develop values, skills, interests, and knowledge of the world of work. In this process, we also make decisions and implement these decisions through education and work. 22. Career-related definitions Job: one person in one position doing a set of tasks. Occupation: a definable work activity found in many locations (e.g. counseling, welding). Career: a series of jobs and occupations one does (narrow). Career: the education, training, work experience, and related professional activities associated with one's occupation (middle). Career: all of the work and other life roles one engages in (broad -from Super). Lifestyle: refers to the person’s orientation and preference in regard to career, family, leisure, place of residence, work climate, and overall style of life. 23. Portfolio and encore careers Portfolio career: Refers to the fact that many workers are engaged in more than one line of work at the same time. These jobs may or may not require similar skills. Encore career: For a number of reasons, many retired individuals by choice or necessity are returning to work. Typically, they do not go back to their pre-retirement employer and thus do a "work encore" in some other kind of employment. 24. Compensatory versus spillover theory of leisure Leisure includes periods of time in which an individual engages in activities or pursuits chosen freely such as relaxation, hobbies, sports, travel, and other outdoor or indoor activities. Do you compensate (in terms of using skills, abilities, interests) for what you cannot do on the job -so you do very different things off the job? Does what you do on the job ‘spillover’ into your leisure-so you do the same kinds of activities, using the same skills? 25. Career guidance and career counseling Career guidance: assists individuals in understanding and acting upon self-knowledge and knowledge of opportunities in work, education, and leisure, and to develop decision-making skills. Career counseling: the emphasis is on career development of an individual with special attention to values and attitudes, in a dynamic environment with a focus on self- understanding, career information, and career planning and decision making. 26. Personal versus career counseling Most professionals believe that career counseling is personal counseling. Clients are holistic with problems and concerns that are multifaceted and overlap in several domains of life including home, work, and family.
**27. Career counseling process
- Establish a relationship** As with all counseling, career counseling is built upon a relationship between a career counselor and a client. In addition to helpful personality characteristics of the counselor, certain conditions experienced by the client in career counseling will facilitate sharing of issues with the career counselor. 2. Problem identification As a result of this sharing, the career counselor and client should develop a better understanding of the issues or problems confronting the client. Without this information, career counseling will lack direction and focus. 3. Assessment Assessment is a continuous process and occurs from the moment the career counselor meets the client. Assessment might include the use of standardized and non- standardized instruments. Some level of assessment continues until termination. 4. Provide information This step of the career counseling process relies on the career counselor as expert to provide pertinent information. The focus here is in informing the client of possibilities , opportunities, and resources helpful in addressing her or his specific career problem. Often, much of this information can be gathered by the client with appropriate direction, rather than given to the client. 5. Decision making In the career counseling process, decision making usually follows.With the help of the career counselor, the client has identified the problem, participated in the assessment process, and has gathered and been given information. Decision making is next. 6. Implementation and follow-up The career decision made in the previous step in the career counseling process is implemented. This will be highly idiosyncratic depending upon the individual, her or his circumstances, and the educational, employment, or other opportunities found in the environment. Follow-up with the client should occur as agreed upon. 28. Career counseling and individual differences Career counselors must be sensitive to the unique characteristics presented by each client. They must fight the natural tendency to stereotype a client because he or she comes from this ethnic group, has that disability, etc. Diversity includes such dimensions as gender, socioeconomic status, age, and spirituality, as well as ethnicity, disability, and sexual orientation. Career counselors must be committed to self- reflection, and aware of the personal, social and occupational oppression that many individuals have experienced. This section identifies some major categories of individual differences and outlines some issues and characteristics about which counselors should be sensitive. Adults in career transition identify issues; values and needs may be changing skills may be obsolete; retraining considered
29 Manifested versus expressed interests Knowing a person's interests can help predict future occupational selection and satisfaction with an occupation. Expressed interests are those spoken or reported. Manifested interests are determined by examining what a person is studying (college major), previous jobs held, and what activities the person likes. Tested interests are those measured via inventories or tests.
30. Testing/assessment in career counseling When using tests and inventories in career counseling, the counselor must be sensitive to the instrument's appropriateness for that client's cultural and linguistic context. Is that test or inventory functionally equivalent within that client's culture as for the culture for which the instrument was originally designed? Tests/inventories often used in career counseling are: Aptitude: ONet Ability Profiler (formerly, General Aptitude Test Battery, GATB); Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB); Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Each of these measures several aptitudes and many are the same on each instrument such as verbal reasoning, mathematical reasoning and spatial perception. Achievement: Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (/TBS); Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT); American College Test (ACT); Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Interest: Strong Interest Inventory (Sll); Self-Directed Search (SDS); Kuder Career Search Planning System; ONet Interest Profiler; COPSystem JC (measure interests, abilities, & values);Campbell Interest and Skill Survey Personality: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Values: O*Net Work Importance Profiler; Super's Work Value Inventory – Revised; Minnesota Importance Questionnaire 31. World-of-Work Map The World-of-Work Map is a method of organizing families of occupations and was developed by ACT. It incorporates the Holland codes by creating a circle of occupations organized by the primary tasks of working with People, Data, Things and Ideas. ACT identified 26 career areas (families of occupations), and using their career exploration materials, over 500 specific occupations can be identified as well as hundreds of college majors. (www.act.org/wwm) 32. Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems Computer guidance systems are designed to complement or supplement career counselors and not to replace them. Research, in general, is finding computer guidance systems helpful. The top-of-the-line systems are: SIGI 3: System of Interactive Guidance and Information (www.valparint.com ) DISCOVER (www.act.org )
These two systems have extensive assessment components measuring interests, values and skills. They do college major matching, provide guidance activities and occupational information. The following systems have limited assessment components, but, in general. ha,-e very good information files covering occupations and colleges. Some also have military occupations, financial aid, apprenticeship files, etc. CHOICES (bridges.com) Focus II (www.focuscareer2.com) Many states have designed their own Career Information System (CIS) which includes assessment, occupational search activities, occupational information and educational information. Other software is available for resume writing, interviewing skills, and job matching.
33. Computer (Internet) Resources The use of the Internet in career development activities is critical. Clients should be encouraged to use all technology including social media sites rather than be overcautious and not use such sites. Social media can be used m present the client's qualifications, interests, goals, and activities which enhance their employability. Tech media can also be used to explore job openings, research prospective employers, provide information to potential employers, do job interviews and network with those who might be helpful about career possibilities. Social media sites which may be the most useful for career related purposes are Linkedln, Twitter and Facebook. It is reasonable to assume that employers will check social media sites in their search for potential job candidates or to round out their picture of individuals who have been identified as potential candidates. Starting in high school and continuing in college, individuals should be concernee and develop an "online" brand. This is the online image or reputation which will be of interest to employers. Such things as academic experiences, volunteer activities, awards, ideas, and travel can all help develop a personal brand. Besides social media sites, other potentially useful sites include educational resources (training programs, colleges, universities, etc.) financial aid, military opportunities, and job listings. Sending resumes via the Internet is common. Self-assessment possibilities also exist online. One source of information about online interviews is SparkHire (www.SparkHire.com). Candidates may submit responses or a video of their performance to questions submitted by the employer. Or the video interview may be conducted directly with both candidate and employer present -online. An excellent information source about employers and organizations is Glassdoor (www.glassdoor.com). Other internet sites in a variety of related areas are: America's Career InfoNet (www. acinet.org) America's Job Bank (www .jobbankinfo .org) Monster (www .monster.com) US Department of Education (www.ed.gov) Career information for under-represented groups: Imdiversity (www.imdiversity.com)
Some of these individuals may find that their circumstances do not allow them to continue retirement and may be forced to return to employment of some kind. Retirement counseling assists individuals in their transitions including the examination of their circumstances, options, fears and possibilities which will prevail following employment. This might include addressing family, home, leisure, employment, social, medical, financial and legal concerns.
40. Career Education Originally career education was a strategy of infusing career development concepts into existing kindergarten through high school curricula. Ken Hoyt, a long-term leader in the career development field, was closely associated with this concept. Goals of career education were: Career Awareness (elementary level) Career Exploration (middle or junior high level) Career Orientation (high school level) Career Preparation (high school level) Career education promotes career awareness and development concepts with school children via classroom activities, guest speakers, field trips, internships and part-time employment for older students. 41. Displaced homemaker and dislocated worker A displaced homemaker has traditionally been a woman who is a former homemaker whose children may be in school or gone. She is looking for employment and may be divorced or widowed. Issues for her may include lack of information about the labor market, poor job- seeking skills, no support system, and shaky self-concept. Dislocated worker is anyone who becomes unemployed because of obsolete or no longer needed skills, downsizing, rightsizing, company relocation, shutdown, or high unemployment. 42. Dual-career (job) or dual-earner couples Many individuals work but do not have careers in the traditional sense. However, they have ‘jobs’ and are wage-earners. Potential conflicts for dual-career or dual-earner couples are: home and children chores are not equitable (asymmetry of roles) whose job takes precedence if a career move is offered c.time for leisure the woman may make more money than the man Identity tension line: This refers to the comfort area each sex has based on sex role socialization. Going beyond (doing opposite sex chores) may create tension. Most current research indicates that when the woman becomes the second earner, she typically maintains the majority of her original household and children chores in addition to her new job. 43. Family and gender issues
A variety of family issues influence the workplace: Families are forming later and fewer children are the norm. Single heads-of-household are common and, in part, reflective of the high divorce rate. The "traditional" family of father working and mother staying home to care for children is no longer the norm. The acceptance of cohabitation before/instead of marriage has delayed or precluded marriage. Gender issues The number of women in the labor market is nearing 75 percent of all working- age women. Many of these women work part-time. Women make up about 47% of the workforce. More men than women lost their jobs in the recent recession. Women earn between 70% and 80% of what men earn with greater wage equality among younger workers .However, more women than men work in part- time jobs which pay less. Women are earning more undergraduate and master's degrees than men and nearly as many degrees as men in law and medicine. Women still assume primary responsibility for children as well as taking care of sick and elderly parents. 'Glass ceiling' refers to the set of restraints, typically imposed by men, which impact women's (or any other group's) ability to move up the career ladder within an organization. In career counseling, family and gender issues must be addressed. Research evidence suggests that family patterns and relationships are carried into the workplace. Family of origin issues are sometimes expressed in occupational choice and workplace behavior. An occupational family tree or genogram may be used in career counseling. Career couples counseling may be appropriate at times. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) covers employers with 50 or more workers. This federal law provides up to a total of 12 weeks of unpaid leave during any 12 month period. It may be taken by a new parent or to care for an immediate family member who is ill.
**44. Other workforce trends
- Issues with economy:** Even with the official national unemployment rate (those seeking work) between 5 and 6 percent, millions of additional workers are unemployed because they have become 'discouraged,' and are no longer seeking employment. One consequence of the uncertain employment situation is the increase in worker stress. The demand for employee assistance services by workers has increased many fold over the past few years. 2. Occupational changes:
Career Development Study Questions
- Maria, a 25-year-old Latina woman, is in career counseling. In reviewing her background, the counselor determines that she has followed the 'rules' and expectations of her close-knit family. She now finds herself in a position needing to support her family on her own and can't decide between three different occupational possibilities which she has heard about. Maria may be characterized as A. career inefficacious. B. career undecided. C. needing more schooling. D. career indecisive.
- Jobs and careers of individuals have been changing over the years. Some newer conceptualizations of the world of work have been noted. For example, when a retired person chooses to re-enter the workforce, such work or career is often called A. compensatory. B. portfolio. C. encore. D. life-career.
- Jason, the sole source of income in the family, suffers unemployment unexpectedly. As the unemployment continues, a variety of consequences are likely to ensue for him, his wife, and their children. Research suggests that A. the next job Jason finds will probably be better than the last one. B. the children should not be told of their father's unemployment in order to reduce their anxiety. C. it is unlikely that Jason will experience the grief cycle. D. as unemployment continues, his wife will slowly pull away from her circle of friends.
- A 45-year old woman is returning to the labor market after an absence of nearly 20 years. She does not know what work she should apply for because she claims she has no skills. Besides dealing with self-concept and confidence issues, the career counselor will attempt to help the woman identify A. obsolescence factors. B. "empty nest" issues. C. a mentor. D. transferable skills.
- Following receipt of a bachelor's degree in sociology, Yolanda joined the Peace Corps. Now, at 25 years of age, she is reviewing her employment options by examining her personal needs and goals, interests, abilities, and opportunities and has made a tentative occupational choice. In light of Super's developmental stages, Yolanda is A. in exactly the right stage.
B. ahead of expectations. C. behind expectations. D. not in any of Super's stages.
- In her career development theory, Linda Gottfredson identified four stages of development experienced by children. During the second stage, children begin to rule out some jobs as not appropriate for them. This stage is characterized by an orientation of children to A. sex roles. B. internal, unique characteristics of self. C. size and power. D. social valuation.
- In general, women earn about 75% of what men earn for a variety of reasons including their entry/re-entry pattern in the labor market, discrimination, and because the types of jobs most of them hold pay less. Which of the following statements is most accurate? A. The glass ceiling is more of a barrier now than in the past. B. The percentage of the labor force composed of women continues to increase dramatically. C. There are fewer women than men in service-related occupations. D. In terms of income, younger women compare more favorably with younger men than do older women compared to older men.
- An elementary school counselor is designing a career development program to be implemented during the next school year. One of the student competencies the counselor would like to address at the elementary school level is A. skills in making career transitions. B. deciding on a career. C. knowledge of the importance of the self-concept. D. skills to locate and interpret career information.
- Awareness by career counselors of the cultural values and environment of minority group members they counsel will make such counseling more effective. Which of the following is NOT true in regard to ethnic groups in this country? A. minority group members are likely to experience discrimination and prejudice In employment. B. The concept of 'last hired, first fired' often applies to minority group members. C. The absence of role models encourages minority group members to accept non- traditional employment. D. There is a sense of wariness and distrust by minority group members of new employment and training programs.
