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UNIT 3 THEORIES OF MASS-
COMMUNICATION
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction ,
3.2 Mass Media and Society
3.2.1 Functions 3.2.2 Interactive Perspective
3.3 Hypodermic or Bullet Theory
3.4 Psychological or Individual Difference Theory
3.4.1 Selective Exposure 3 4.2 Selective Perception ,
3.5. Personal Influepce Theory
3.5.1 Two-step ROW 3.5.2 Multi-step Flow.
3.6 Sociological Theories of Mass Communication
3.6.1 Cultivntion Theory 3.6.2 Agenda Setting Theory 3.6.3 The Uses and Grntifccltion Theory 3.6.4 Dependency Theory
3.7 Normative Theories of Mass Media
3.7.1 Authoritarian Theory 3.7.2 Free Press Theory 3.7.3 Social Responsibility Theory ' 3.7.4 Communist Media Theory 3.7.5 Development Communication Theory 3.7.6. Democratic-Participant Media Theory
3.8 Some other Theories-of Mass Media
3.8.1 Mass Society Theory 3.8.2 Politicnl Economic Media Theory 3.8.3 Hegemony Theory 3.8.4 Culture and Semiotic Theory
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Further Reading
3.1 1 Check Your Progress : Model Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to familiarize you with some important theoretical issues that seek to explain how the audience uses media and the effects of mass media in society. After going though this unit, you should be able to :
explain the relationship between mass media and sociky; identify the individual's. reactbns to mass media messages;
i detect the interpersonal influences as barriers to mass media messages' effects;
discuss the sociological theories of mass communication; discuss the normative theories of mass media; and outline the alternative approaches to mass communication theories.
Theories vf 3.1 INTRODUCTION Mass Communication
In the preceding Unit, we traced the development of Communication Models - fioin simple models to complex ones. We also presented some of the models evolvcd by distinguished scholars and discussed their distinct characteristics. In the present Unit, we describe some important theories of mass communication which will enable you to understand how mass communication operates in society. Having
done that, in Unit IV our focus will be on areas and methods of communication
research.
3.2 MASS MEDIA AND SOCIETY
There has been enormous interest among social scientists to find out the effects of mass com~nunicationwithin society. This has resulted in a number of theories which essentially trace the relationship between mass communication and society. However, no single integrated theory of communication has yet emerged which is universally accepted. We dcscribe here some important theories of mass communication to help you to understanding how mass communication operates in society.
Please note that early theories were based on assumptions that mass media have enormous and direct influence upon society. But later researches provide evidence against any direct cause and effect relationship between mass communication and society; rather they underline the importance of individual differences and personal influences on transmission, acceptance and retention of message. Sociological theories portrayed mass media as an outcome of changes in society. There are other theories that express ideas on how the mass media ought to or can be expected t o operate under prevailing political and economic circumstances. Some of the important theories discussed here will provide you insights into ths rolc of mass communication in society and the way in which an audience utilizes different mass media.
Mass media today are inextricable form of modern society. Without these media,
society probably cannot conduct its affairs effectively. On their part, mass media, in
a bid to serve the people, play a significant role in spreading new ideas, new forms of behaviour and information about a variety of products.
Society, whether simple or complex, needs sdme communicatibn system sa that its various organizations may perform their designated fuytions. Mass media do what is demanded n f them and while do in^ that thev draw strenath and sttnnnrt from
Check Your Progress 1
Note : 4) Use the space given below for your answers.
I
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
', I
- Mention three ways in which mass media can strengthen a nation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................,^.
- Why do mass media become manipulative, biased. and propagandist? -.
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3. 2. 2 Interactive Perspective
On relationship between mass media and society, Denis McQuail (1983) proposed an
interactive perspective, that mass media are primarily moulders of society as well as
i
reflectors of it. According to him, "society produces demands for information and entertainment to which media respond. It provides resources and tim: needed for the growth of media industries and freedom to operate. Mass communication in turn stimulates changed accelerates and demand for its own services, contributes to the climate of cultural and political freedom in which media can themselves better operate, diffuse new ideas and inrrovations. The two influences are so bound (^). I together that neither mass dommunication nor modern forms of society is conceivable without the other and each is a necessary but not a sufficient condition I (^) for the olher". In short, in his thinking, the mass media may equally be considered I to mould, mirror and follow social change.
i
The p~rtrayal~ofmass media as interactive with changes in society can be seen in the ways the two have evolved together. The origin, development, and ultimate use and influence of .yass media ha<e been in conformity with the changing conditions in society. As society has evolved towards industrialization and modernization and ,
become complex, communication systems too have developed into highly intricate technical operations to cope with the ever increasing deinand for information and ipterpretation of events. The dynamic relaJionship between the two gets further
strengthened if mass media functions are closely linked with people!^ needs,
interests, aspirations, etc. in a hiphly diversified society.' As long as mass' media. give what people need or want, they remain a potent force, in society. But the moment they, with acquired power and control, give what they think people want,
' Themies of Mass Communlcatlon
' Introduction to Communications they become manipulative and ay be working towards the taming of mind and
indoctrination. Mass media are \p werful instruments. In the recent past, quite a few
leaders of the Third World countries have used these instruments to attain their own
personal goals.
Therefore, if mass media are to become credible instruments of social change, they
have to function with restraint and responsibility in accordance with the changing
modes of society.
Activity 1
List the various mass media you used yesterday, from the time you got. up in
the morning to the time you went to sleep at night. Figure out the amount of
time you spent on .each medium.
Date Mass Media used Programme Title. Duration
........ .............................. ........................... .................. ........ .............................. ........................... .................. ........ .............................. ........................... .................. ........ .............................. ........................... .................. ........ .............................. ........................... .................. s....... .............................. ........................... ..................
3.3 HYPODERMIC OR BULLET THEORY
This theory reflects the fear or awe of Inass media being used for massive
propaganda as during World War I1 when it was thought to have direct and
powerful influence upon audiences. The media were seen as manipulating audiences
at will. As the name "Bullet" theory suggests, the messages were thought to be like
magic bullets that were shot directly into the receiver. It assumes that receivers are
.passive and defenceless and take whatever is shot at them. It also means that media
are extremely powerful institutions and media consumers are naive and malleable.
If one believes in Bullet theory+ one has to maintain that the audience is made up
?f an enormous undifferentiated mass of humanity and that each member of the
audience would react identically to the Inass mediated messages. If that is so,
thousands or millions of people who receive messages by watching horror movies or
about dreadful events like war, drugs, AIDS etc. would ultimalcly become potential
victims of mass media. But researches and even our own experiences with mass
media do not support this view of mass audience. And this jeopardisesI the'validity
of Hypodermic o~Bullc$-theory.
Iniroductlon ioCommunleatlons' (^) Melvin L. De Fleur and Sandfh Ball-Rokeach have concluded that "from the vast availabld content, individual members of the audience selectively attend to, interpret and retain messages, particularly if they are related to their interest, consistent with their attitude, congruent with their beliefs and supportive of their values" (1981).
These studies, which tried to discover psychological characteristics as intervening
. (i.e. between media and nudience), were admirable but they remained inconclusive.
The possjbilities of other specific waits of an audience which could serve as barriers
between message and effects emerged from the political studies and gave rise to personal influence theory.
r
Check Your Progress 2
Note : i)^ '^ Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the Unit. I
- Please write down five things which mass media 'can do' for society and five things which mass media 'cannot do' in the columns given below : P
Can Do Cannot Do
.................................................... .................................................... .................................................... .................................................... .................................................... ....................................................
.. .................................................... ..................................................... ................................................. <.. ....................................................
3.5 PERSONAL INFLUENCE THEORY
This theory is the outcome of a classic study of the 1940 presidential elections in
the United States by Paul E. Lazarsfeld and others in the book, "The Peopk's
Choice". The findings revealed that no voter seemed to have been directly
influenced by the mass media. It turned out that the interpersonal relationships and not the mass media, had enormous influence on voters. Political discussions with , other people, particularly^ politiclal^ 'opinion leaders', had more influence on^ their decision making than their direct use of mass media. These informal communications' network, in which audiences talked to one another and sought advice from opinion leaders, had led to two-step flow influence of mass communication.
3.5.1 Two-step Flow
The above mentioned .study of presidential elections revealed that many voters had limited exposure to the mass media. The information they received was mostly through other people, called "opinion leaders", who had first hand access to mass media information. It was explained like this: the information often flowed from m q s media sources directly to opinion leaders, who passed it along to less active
sections of the population. Thus, the majority got information this way. The study
revealed that the information received by the audience this way was secondhand and could be different from the original because the opinion leaders might add their own interpretation to it before conveying it to others.
The opinion leaders, therefore, fArm valuable linkes in the two-step flow of
information. This led to many studies on opinion leaders: who arc those opinion
leaden? What do they do to get information? How are they important to the
18 di~seminationnfmassmedia messages? And so 06; Researches revealed that these
opinion leaders, although not elected members in society, were more knowledgeable, Theorla^ or educated, influential both socially and economically, and more modern in outlook ~ a n sCommun~catton than other fellow members in society. They were held in high esteem by people
who relied on them greatly for ideas, information and guidance.
Like other theories, two-step flow has its shortcoming too: first, it diminishes the original, direct influence of mass media; secondly, its effects are evident only in political studies that were conducted decades ago when there was no television
inlluence and, therefore, may not be as applicable to the contemporary political
scene.
Activity 3
Recall any recent incident of a major bomb explosion or accident in the country causing death and destruction.
Through which channel did you come to know about the incident?
L Now interview ten persons at random to know the sources through which they received the same information.
Categorise the responses. Was it directly through one of the mass media or through some interpersonal channel?
Analyse the steps of the communication flow.
3.5.2 Multi-step Flow
Further studies on opinion leaders led to the modification and reconceptualization of the two-step flow concept into multi-step flow - because of the multi-directional influence of opinion leaders, not necessarily only downwards, when they interpreted the media messages for audiences. The influence was seen to be "upwards" or back towards the media sources, when they sought to tell gatekeepers (editors of newspapers, news editors of radio and TV news, producers, etc.) how to do their job. Also, the influence was "sideways" when they shared insights with other
opinion leaders. Moreover, the multi-step flow concept was seen as having many
relay. points, i.e. information reaching a member of the audience directly or reaching
him secondhand, thirdhand or fourthhand, and sometimes in a form considerably different from the original.
It is important to note that both two-step flow and multi-step flow theories clearly discredit the direct intluence of the mass media because of extraneous influences, interpersonal channels and social relations of audiences which are often complex, multi-directional and multidimensional.
Check Your Progress 3
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Compare your answers. with those given at the end of the Unit.
- Fill in the blanks choosing appropriate words from those given in the brackets.
In the United States of America,....................studied the presidential election of 1940. He found that the .................... were not. directly influenced by ...........:......... They were influenced by .................... I /n..:-:..- i a 6 ~ - - ~D....I r ..-,,-..LIA \I..+.,-o nI.-..-- I#.,A;~ \
are more successful in telling people "what is to think about" than in telling them "what to think". This h'ypothesis is based on a whole series of studies showing a correspondence between the order of importance given in the media to 'issues' and the order of significance attached to the same issues by the public and the politicians. Over a period of time, according to this theory, the very priorities accorded by media to issues become the public priorities as well.
But the critics (McQuail, 1983) argue that the evidence is insufficient to show a causal connection between the various issue 'agendas' of the media and the public. They suggested the need for a study that combined analysis of party programmes, evidence of opinion change over time in a given section of the public: a content analysis showing media attention to different issues in the relevant period: and some indication of relevant media use by the public concerned. In the absence of such evidence, the hypothesis of agenda setting remains unproved.
3.6.3 The Uses and Gratification Theory
The Uses and Gratifications Theory arose out of the studies which shifted their focus from what the media do to the people to what people do with the media (Katz 1959). The question asked is: How do people use the mass media and why? The "uses" approach assumes that audiences are active and willingly expose themselves to media; and that the most potent of mass media content cannot influence an individual who has "no use" for it in .the environment in which he lives. The uses of mass media are dependent on the perception, selectivity, and previously held beliefs, values, and interests of the people.
The term "gratification" refers to the rewards and satisfaction experienced by audiences after the use of media; it helps to explain motivations behind media use and habits of media use. Davison (1959) has shown that many research findings make more sense if communications are interpreted as a link between man and his environment. He suggests that communication effects can be explained in terms of the role they play in enabling people to bring about m o e satisfactory relations between themselves and the world around them.
Three distinct groups of uses and gratifications studies can be distinguished. The first of these groups conducts inquiries into the range of satisfaction derived from mass media material. The second group looks at the social and environmental circumstances that are responsible for people turning to the media in the first place. The third looks at the needs audience members are attempting to satisfy.
Activity 4
Recall the items you selected for watching, listening to and reading in the r
last 24 hours. List them down in the space provided below.
In which of these cases, was the use and gratifications theory possibly applicable? /
Theories of Mass Communication
Introduction to Communications
In case of items in which this theory was not applicable, what was the
reason, motive, or provocation for you to expose yourself to those items'?
3.6.4 Dependency Theory
Melvin De Fleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach have proposed an integrated dependency
theory of mass communication in which they recognise various psychological and
social factors that prevent the media from exercising arbitrary control over their
audiences. De Fleur and Ball-Rokeach describe it like this: "Mass media not only
lack arbitrary influence powers, but their personal lack of freedom to engage in
arbitrary communication behaviuor. Both the media and their audiences are integral
part of their society. The surrounding socio-cultural context provides controls and
constraints not only on the nature of media messages but also on the nature of their
effects on audiences". In fact, communication in all its forms has a very important
role in holding society together. The need to belong to the society, to understand
the society, and to keep up with society has increased our dependency on media
and, in that sense, media enjoy certain powers.
Check Your Progress 4
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end^ of^ the
Unit.
Tick [ 4 ] the appropriate answers.
1) The Cultivation Theory says that
a) repeated exposure to mass media for a long period of time
makes the audience adopt the culture and values propagated by
mass media;
b) the audiences remain the same after having been exposed to
mass media for a long time;
C) inspite^ of long exposure to mass media the audiences are
capable of cultivating their own values and culture.
2 ) According to Agenda-Setting Theory:
a) the mass media always set the agenda for the people;
b) the audience and the mass media have different agendas;
C) the mass media influence the audience and, over a period of
time, make the a t d ~ n c epriortise the issues/problems etc., in
accol.daxe with the mass media.
3) The gratification theory says that the people;
a) use media selectively to satisfy their needs;
b) are always used by mass media;
c) have no use of media in their daily life.
Introduction to Communications (^) Sola Pool (1973), "No nation will indefinitely tolerate a freedom of the press that serves to divided the country and to ,open the flood gates of criticism against the freely chosen government that leads it". Moreover, much difficulty has arisen because press freedom has become identified with property rights (private ownership) and freedom from interference in the market. The free press theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give equal expression to the rights of editors and journalists or of the audiences.
3.7.3 Social Responsibility Theory
The 'social responsibility' theory owes its origin to the Commission on Freedom of the Press (Hutchins 1947). that was appointed in the United States. The commission's main finding is that the free market has failed to fulfill certain obligations to society. According to it, the press has not met the informational, social, and moral needs of the society. In fact, it has increased the powcr of a single class.
The Social Responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media serve essential functions in society. Therefore, it should accept and fultill certain obligations to the society. These obligations are to be met by setting up high professional standards in communication of infonnation: truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance. In accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be self-regulatory within the framework of law and established institutions. In the public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead to crime, violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious minorities. The media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their socicty and allow access to various points of view, including the right to reply.
This theory has lead to the establishment of self regulatory bodies like the Press Council which is responsible for
drawing up of statutes to protect editorial and journalistic practice; framing of codes of ethics; ensuring implementation of anti-monopoly legislation; and regulation of advertising.
3.7.4 Communist Media Thgpry
This is also known as the Soviet Media Theory. The Russian media were reorganized after the Revolution of 1917. This theory is derived mainly from the basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the control of the working class whose interest they are meant to serve. Private ownership of the press or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive functions in society relating to infomation, education, motivation, and mobilization. The media must project society in accordance with the Marxist-Leninist principles. They must support progressive movements in the country and abroad.
The media, according to t h i ~theory, are subject to the ultimate control of the State and are integrated with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media are expected to be self-regulatory, They must
act with responsibility;. evolve and follow norms of professional conduct; and
respond 'to people's needs and aspirations.
The media, as per this theory, are not' subject to arbitrary interference as in the
case of the authoritarian theory;
3.7.5 Development Communication ,Theory
The limited application of the faur established theories of the press to Third World countries, which are vastly different from each <other and western countries, and with .
fast changing economic and political conaitions, has led to the birth of a new Theories^ of approach whereby communication is used to carry out development tasks in line Mass^ Communication with nationally established policy - hence the formulation of development communication theory. The best source for infonnation on this issue is the report of thc UNESCO sponsored International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems (McBride et al. 1980).
Some common conditions of developing countries that limit the potential benefits of other theories are:
the absence of communication infrastructure;
a dependence on the developed world for hardware and software;
the commitment of these societies to economic, political and social development
as a primary national task; and
the developing countries' awareness of their siinilar identity and interest in international politics.
Because of these differing conditions, the developing countries' overriding objectives would be to use mass media for nation-building. In the interest of this task of national development, the freedom of the media and of journalists needs to be curbed to an extent.
The major thrust of development communication theorists has been on the use of media as a support to national development programme - poverty alleviation, population control, literacy drive, employment generation schemes, etc. But the effectiveness of this 'theory depends on how governments exercise their right to restrict freedom or to intervene in media operations and how they use devices of censorship, subsidy, and direct control.
3.7.6 Democratic-Participant Media Theory
This most recent addition to the list of normative theories, is relevant to the developed liberal societies but has some elements of the development media theory. McQuail notes that it is most difficult to formulate this theory "partly because it lacks full legitimisation and incorporation into media institutions and partly because some of its tenets are already to be found in some of the other theories". In his opinion, this theory represents a challenge to the reigning theories and merits separate identification.
The main feature of the democratic participant theory relates to the needs, interests,
and aspirations of the active receiver i n a political society. It is concerned with the
right to information, the right to answer back, the right to use the means of communication for interaction i n the small-scale settings of the community. The theory favours
a. multiplicity of media;
smallness of scale, of operation; and
a horizontality of communication at all levels. It opposes uniform, centralized, high
cost, highly professionalized and state-controlled media.
It is argued that the media should exist primarily for the audiences ,and ndt for media organizations and professionals.
Check Your Progress 5
We have just discussed the normative theories. You are now familiar with the
basic characteristics of each of these. In the format given below, please fill
in the boxes 'with appropriate words/ phrases describing each. ,> .-
3.8.3 Hegemony Theory
The "Hegemony" Theory, unlike the political economic, concentrates less on the economic system and more on the ideology itself. Here, a greater degree of independence of ideology from the economic base is ert'lphasised. The relationships between the capitalist and working classes are legitimated by the media in terms 6f the voluntary consent of the workihg class itself.
3.8.4 Culture and Semiotic Theory
This theory is derived from Saussure's and Peirce's studies of signs and meaning and their relation to culture, people, and objects. Saussure (1935), a linguist, stressed on texts and its meaning in the light of the "host" culture. It is thus concerned with explanation of cultural as well as linguistic meaning. Semiotics is the general science of signs, developed by philosopher and logician Peirce (1931-35), which deals 'with how signs signify.
Deriving largely from both Saussure and Peirce, Fiske (1982), describes semiotics as having three aspects; the signs and the way they relate to people who use them; the codes or system into which signs are organised to meet the needs of a society or culture; and the culture within which these codes and signs operate. It is only when meaning is conveyed from sender to receiver, that communication has taken place.
Semiotic theory, thus, is not concerned with transmission of m e s s a g e - is the case ,in process approach, but with derivation or transfer of meaning in communication. 'The focus here is on the role of communication in establishing meaning and /maintaining values and on how these values enable communication to have meaning. 'Any failure in communication is not seen as a barrier but regarded as indicative of social and cukural differences between people, culture or society. And this divergence of meaning, according to Semiotic school, can be minimized not by improving the efficiency of communication process but by reducing the social differences. "The determinants of cornrnu~cationlie in society and the world around us, not in the process itself'. (Fiske)
LET ,US SUM UP
Theories of Mass Communication
A variety of theories of mass communication have been presented in this unit to provide an understanding -of how the mass media operate within the society and the ways in which audiences utilize mass media. As you must have noticed, there are many perspectives to study the possible impact 'of the mass media in society. The early theories were based on assumptions that mass media have enorqnous and direct influence upon society, but subsequent research showed that there are I I ~ such direct cause and effect relationship between the two.
The interactive perspective considers mass media primarily as moulders of society as well as the reflectors of it. The psychologicat approach held individual's (^). psych~logicalmechanism responsible for his reaction to media messages. The important concepts that arise from this perspective explain how selective exposure and selective perception limit the scope of direct impact of mass communication of people.
$'he two-step y d multi-step flow of information theories also discredit the direct influence of mass media because of many other influences like .interpersonal channels, opinion leaders, social relations of audience which may come in between mass media and audiences and may dilute the media messages and the desired effects.
The sociological approach to mass cammunication studies put greater emphasize on audiences and see them as manipulating the media more than the media manipulating them. The uses and gratifications theory assumes that people select media in their own way. The media dependency theory and the agenda-setting (^57)
Introduction toCommunications (^) theory explain the way audience choose media so as not to be controlled by them.
The normative theories of mass media highlight the restrictions and constraints within which mass media are made to operate under prevailing political economic conditions and thereby diminish their impact.
The theories in marxist tradition consider media as "class media" which operate under clhs dominance and serve both the economic and ideological interests of the ruling class. And, finally, the theories of culture and semiology demonstrate that it is the transfer of meaning and no,t the transmission of message that makes comrnunication to take place.
3.10 FURTHER READING
Denis McQuail, 1987 (Second Edition) : Mass Communication Theories : An Introduction, Sage Publications, London. John Fiske, 1982, lntroduction to Communication Studies ; Methuen, London and New' York. s
3.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : MODEL ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
- a)^ Mass Media inform the people of a nation about the happenings within a country.
b) Mass Media bring the people and the administration close, thus, help in giving and receiving feedback about the national policies.
c) Mass Media propagate the national values and culture by projecting them in various forms in different programmes.
- Mass media are powerful instruments. They can not act on their own. The people who use these instruments are responsible for the roles played by them. They become anti-people, manipulative, biased, and propagandist, when the owners of mass media choose to be so.
Check Your Progress 2
CAN DO CANNOT DO
1) Can reflect certain aspirations of 1) Cannot reflect^ all^ the aspirations of
the people in a society. all the people in a society.
2) Can help people who like to use 2)^ Mass media are instruments. They
them for some purposes. cannot act on their own.
- Can help the members of a society 3) Mass media cannot take any to initiate interaction for a decision. decision on behalf bf the society.
4) Can only inform. 4)^ Cannot make the^ all^ audiences act
in a similar way.
5) Can perturb the audience to a 5)^ Cannot make the audiences totally
certain extent. passive.
Social Private and To let^ all^ People get^ General public Responsibility Public national voices1 opportunities to who are less Theory Organisation viewslopinion know many educated. less find ways for (^) alternative i.ationa1 but has accurate views1 opinions something to
Introduction to Communications
I expression. etc. and thus. say may never
- 3 ' Theory Owner1 Major One One Dis- Controller Functions Advantage advantage
society as a find ways to whole benefits. express.
Communist State To safeguard The society The other Media and propagate^ moves to one^ rational voices Theory the interests of^ direction to^ never find the proletariet. achieve certain opportunities to P (^) set values. express themselves.
Development Usually the To support the The limited'. The culture of cornrnunica- Statk. policies of^ resources^ are^ freedom of tion Theory development^ of^ -'^ better^ utilised^ expression is the for nation^ not encouraged. government. building.
Democratic State and Private Torlet the Encourages National fabric Participation Organisation. receivers of small^ scale^ may weaken. Theory message operation of internct with media. People source and may have a other relevant better chance to parties. interact more on local and relevant issues.
