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Perceiving Ourselves and

CHAPTER^ Others in Organizations

THREE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe the self-concept characteristics and processes, and explain how each affects an individual’s behavior and well-being.
2. Outline the perceptual process and discuss the effects of categorical thinking and mental models in that process.
3. Discuss how stereotyping, attribution, self-fulfilling prophecy, halo, false consensus, primacy, and recency effects influence the perceptual process.
4. Discuss three ways to improve perceptions, with specific application to organizational situations.
5. Outline the main features of a global mindset and justify its usefulness to employees and organizations.

Self-Concept Defined

Our self-beliefs and self-evaluations.

We compare situations with our current (perceived

self) and desired (ideal self).

Three levels of self-concept: individual, relational,

collective.

Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock

Self-Concept Model:

Three Cs and Four Selves

Exhibit 3.1 Self-Concept Characteristics and Processes.

Outcomes of Self-Concept Characteristics

People have better well-being with: Multiple selves (complexity). High-consistency selves. Well-established selves (clarity). Effects on individual behavior and performance. Self-concept complexity. High: more adaptive, more diverse networks, but more stressful. Low: more resources to develop identities. Self-concept clarity. High: better performance, leadership, career development, less threatened by conflict. Very high: role inflexibility.

Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement

Drive to promote and protect a positive self-view.

Competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued.

Evident in common and important situations.

Self-enhancement outcomes.

Better mental and physical health.

Higher motivation due to “can-do” beliefs.

Riskier decisions, inflated perceived personal causation, slower to recognize mistakes.

Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation

Self-esteem.

Extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with

themselves.

High self-esteem: less influenced by others, more persistent, more

logical thinking.

Self-efficacy.

Belief that we can successfully perform a task (MARS factors).

General self-efficacy, “can-do” belief across situations.

Locus of control.

General belief about personal control over life events.

Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control.

Self-Concept: Social Self

Opposing motives: Need to be distinctive and unique (personal identity). Need for inclusion and assimilation with others (social identity). We define ourselves by groups we are easily identified with, that have high status, and our minority status in a situation. Exhibit 3.2 Social Identity Theory Example Access the text alternative for slide images.

Perceptual Organization and Interpretation

Perceptual grouping processes reduce information volume and complexity. Categorical thinking: organizing people or things. Perceptual grouping principles: Similarity or proximity. Closure: filling in missing pieces. Perceiving trends. Interpreting incoming information. Emotional markers automatically evaluate information.

Mental Models in Perceptions

Knowledge structures that we develop to

describe, explain, and predict the world

around us.

Visual: image road maps.

Relational: cause–effect.

Important for sense-making.

Problem: Mental models make it difficult to

see the world in different ways.

Need to constantly question our mental models.

Stereotyping

Assigning traits to people based on their membership in social categories. Kernels of truth, but embellished, distorted, supplemented. Why people stereotype: Categorical thinking. Fulfills drive to comprehend and predict others’ behavior. Supports self-enhancement and social identity. Aaron Amat/Shutterstock

Categorization, Homogenization,

Differentiation

Social identity and self-enhancement reinforce stereotyping through: Categorization process: categorize people into groups. Homogenization process: assign similar traits within a group; different traits to other groups. Differentiation process: assign more favorable attributes to our groups; less favorable to other groups. Aaron Amat/Shutterstock

Attribution Theory

The perceptual process of deciding whether an observed

behavior or event is caused mainly by internal or external

factors.

Internal Attribution:

• (^) Perceiving that behavior/event is caused mainly by the

person.

External Attribution:

• (^) Perceiving that behavior/event is caused mainly by

factors beyond the person’s control.

Attribution Rules

Exhibit 3.4 Attribution Theory Rules Access the text alternative for slide images.