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Hindsight Bias The tendency after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it ( The i-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) Critical Thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions Theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and prefects behaviours or events Hypothesis a testable prediction, often implied by a theory Operational definition a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as "what an intelligence test measures" Replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Case Study an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Naturalistic observation observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group Population all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples can be drawn ( Note: except for national studies, this does not refer to the country's whole population) Random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion correlation a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
placebo effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent independent variable the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied confounding variable a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment dependent variable the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable Descriptive Research Method To observe and record behaviour ex. case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys Correlational Research Method to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another ex. collect data on two or more variables; no manipulation
Experimental Research Method to explore cause and effect ex. manipulate on or more factors; use random assignment mode the most frequently occurring score(s) in the distribution mean the arithmetic average of distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores median the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score normal curve
the theory that we explain someone's behaviour by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition fundamental attribution error the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behaviour, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of the personal disposition attitude feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events peripheral route persuasion occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness central route persuasion occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favourable thoughts foot-in-the-door phenomenon the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
cognitive dissonance theory the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and or actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing out attitudes conformity adjusting our behaviour or thinking to coincide with a group standard normative social influence influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval informational social influence influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality social facilitation stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others social loafing the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
the tendency for people to believe the word is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get ingroup "us" - people with whom we share a common identity outgroup "them"- those perceived as different or apart from the in group ingroup bias the tendency to favour our own group scapegoat theory the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame other-race effect the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias aggression any physical or verbal behaviour intended to hurt or destroy
frustration aggression principle the principle that frustration-the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression social script culturally modelled guide for how to act in various situations mere exposure effect the phenomenon the repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them passionate love an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship companionate love the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it self-disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
mirror-image perceptions mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation GRIT Graduated and Intiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions personality an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking feeling, and acting psychodynamic theories view personality with focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences free association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
psychoanalysis freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions unconscious according to freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware id a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification ego the largely conscious "executive" part of personality that, according to freud, mediates amount the demands of the id, superego, and reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain superego the part of personality that, according to freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement ( the conscience) and for future aspirations psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral,anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to freud the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. Rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their inter- pretations of the blots. terror-management theory a theory of death related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioural responses to reminders of their impending death humanistic theories view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth self-actualization according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential unconditional positive regard according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question who am i? trait a characteristic of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports personality inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours; used to assess selected personality traits Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use) this test is now used for many other screening purposes Empirically derived test a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and the selecting those that discriminate between groups social-cognitive perspective views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context reciprocal determinism
spotlight effect overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders ( as if we presume the spotlight shines on us) self-esteem one's feelings of high or low self-worth self-serving bias a readiness to perceive oneself favourably narcissism excessive self-love and self-absorption intelligence mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations intelligence test a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others general intelligence (g) a general intelligence factor that, according to spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score savant syndrome a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing creativity the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas emotional intelligence the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions mental age a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8 Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test
