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Understanding

Architecture

Understanding Architecture is a comprehensive introduction to architecture and architectural history and exceptional in its holistic approach. It explores the current practice of architecture in relation to its history and in relation to the issues that are significant today. This new edition looks at the implica- tions of sustainability, at conservation, landscape, and urban regeneration. Its extended coverage includes China, the Middle East, India, Africa and other parts of the world. Its aim is to help people make sense of the experience of architecture and the built environment by introducing some of the complexities of the subject.

Hazel Conway is a heritage consultant. She is on the London Advisory Committee and the Historic Parks and Gardens Panel of English Heritage and was a member of the Urban Parks Panel of the Heritage Lottery Fund. She lectures at a number of institutions and was principal lecturer in archi- tectural and landscape history at Leicester Polytechnic. She was awarded her doctorate for her study of Victorian parks. Her books include Public Parks , Shire Publications, 1996 and People’s Parks , Cambridge University Press,

Rowan Roenisch is a principal lecturer in architectural history at De Montfort University. She is a member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation and a caseworker for the Victorian Society. She has contributed to the Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World and presented papers on Zimbabwean Shona and Tonga architecture at the International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments conferences held in Italy and Hong Kong.

Understanding

Architecture

An introduction to architecture

and architectural history

Hazel Conway and

Rowan Roenisch

First edition published 1994 This edition published 2005 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 1994, 2005 Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Conway, Hazel. Understanding architecture: an introduction to architecture and architectural history/Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–415–32058–5 (hard cover: alk. paper) – ISBN 0–415–32059–3 (soft cover: alk. paper) – ISBN 0–203–23823–0 (e-book)

1. Architecture. 2. Architecture and society. I. Roenisch, Rowan. II. Title. NA2500.C62 2004 720–dc22 2004009647

ISBN 0–415–32059–

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Contents

Illustration credits viii Foreword ix Foreword to the first edition xi Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction 1

2 Architecture and building 9

3 Architectural history 33

4 Space and function 55

5 Drawings and models 82

6 Materials and construction 110

7 The exterior 142

8 Styles and periods 167

9 Site and place 193

10 Sources 220

Glossary 239 Notes 268 Index 274

Foreword

Professor Peter Swallow

As the late Professor Furneaux Jordan once wrote, ‘architecture is the product of a hundred circumstances’ and to a newcomer the subject may appear both inaccessible and daunting. However, all that is required to make some sense of architecture, and increase one’s pleasure in experiencing it is an enquiring mind and a sound introductory text to set one off on what, for many, becomes a rich life-long journey of discovery. This book provides an impressive introduction to architecture and archi- tectural history by presenting in a structured way clear insights into how architecture is influenced by the climate, culture, society, technology and needs of its time and place. Through carefully chosen and well-illustrated examples, taken from many parts of the world, the reader is both informed and given the means by which to analyse and understand the architecture around them. In this thoroughly revised and updated second edition the authors have covered in a masterly way, albeit at an introductory level, such diverse issues as conservation, ethnicity, feminism, planning and urbanism, which are at the heart of many of the debates on architecture. I warmly commend this as a book that will enable students to engage with, rationalise and understand not only the architecture of the past and the present, but also the future. Department of Product and Spatial Design (incorporating Leicester School of Architecture) De Montfort University

holistically. So often the needs and complexities of urban design go far beyond the scope and influence of any single discipline, yet arguments about our urban fabric degenerate into shallow exchanges on style and taste. They represent a superficial cosmetic, when the scale and nature of the problem demand a much more rigorous and searching analysis of not only how things should be built, but what should be built. Many of the mistakes that were made in the recent past will have to be redressed and perhaps the govern- mental machinery to achieve what is needed will have to undergo radical change. These are challenging times for our urban environments, and their destinies depend on the understanding of the ordinary citizen. This book attempts to elucidate that understanding. County Architect, Hampshire (1973–87)

xii Foreword to the first edition

Acknowledgements

This book has evolved out of the ideas and experience of architecture that we have gained over many years and it is impossible to mention by name all the many people who have helped us in this. While we were exploring the form that this book should take, we discussed our ideas with many people and we would particularly like to thank Peter Swallow, Crispin Branfoot, Anthea McCullough and David Saile for their constructive criticisms. We should point out, however, that the responsi- bility for the contents of this book rests entirely with the authors. Catherine King, Robert Hillenbrand, John Newman and Peter Howell all spent time encouraging our efforts and we would like to express our thanks to them for this. We would also like to thank Neil Jackson for his comments and help on American sources of information. In gathering together the illustrations that form an essential part of this book we have often been accompanied, in all types of weather, by tolerant friends and family who might sometimes have preferred other destinations. In particular, many discussions with Frieda Roenisch, Fred Hoffman and John Hoffman have added considerably to the book. Many individuals, organisations and institutions have gone out of their way to answer queries, provide help and lend us photographs; we would particularly like to thank Mr and Mrs J. Acton, Imre Bangha, Dominic Cole, Mr and Mrs Thomas Courtauld, James Stevens Curl, Philip Davies, English Heritage, Foster and Partners, Donald S. Gimson, Hampshire County Architects, Mr and Mrs I. Horowitz, Land Use Consultants, Michael Hopkins Architects, Donald Insall, George Michell, Michael Rosen, Rob Sheen, Joan Skinner, Ian Spencer, Colin Stansfield Smith, Mary Stewart, Michael Taylor, Tesco Stores Ltd and the owners of Downton Castle. We would also like to thank our editors and De Montfort University for their support.

1 Introduction

The experience of architecture and the built environment is something that forms part of everyday life for most of us. This book is about how to under- stand that environment and the form, construction and history of buildings. It is for students and all who are concerned about the architecture of today and yesterday. It may seem that there are so many books published on the subject of architecture and architectural history that there is little need for another one. Rather than writing another history of architecture, our aim is to show that history all around us is there for us to explore and enjoy. Some buildings we may like, others we find most uncongenial. That is part of the challenge and this book is about understanding buildings, whether we like them or not. This means not just the way they look, or their construction and mater- ials, but how they came into being, and how they were and are used. To understand the complexities of the built environment we need to know some- thing about the decisions that led to building developments, the economic and political context of patronage, the role of developers and the social and cultural context of building use. Studying the past enables us to understand today more clearly. It frees us from becoming impotent prisoners of the present and enables us to see the possibilities of choice. This applies to any area of history, including architecture and the built environment. Architec- ture touches on many disciplines and this book adopts an holistic approach to the subject. It is about raising questions, rather than giving answers, and our aim is accessibility, for architecture is part of everyone’s lives. Consciously or unconsciously everyone is affected by their environment. The increasing popular interest in the subject of architecture is reflected by television programmes and articles in the daily press. Prize-winning archi- tects and prize-winning buildings are given star treatment and major new developments across the world are the subject of keen debate. Many people now feel encouraged to join in the debate on architecture, particularly when new developments affect their own locality. Some new and import- ant developments mark this broadening of interest. Television and the web make it possible to see examples of international architecture in our homes. In many cities there are architecture centres and museums of architecture

that present exhibitions of historic architecture, as well as architectural proposals for the future. Such centres and museums face the problem of how to present three-dimensional buildings, often of a large scale, in a confined space. Photographs, plans, models and videos are among the techniques used. Videos in particular make it possible to ‘walk through’ buildings and gain a sense of their spatial qualities. There is, however, a great difference between enjoying images and models and understanding something about the signi- ficance of the buildings depicted. For this a critical approach becomes important and, in order to discuss buildings in any detail, some under- standing of the language of architecture is essential. This book presents a step in that direction. Some of the discussions and writing on the subject can seem daunting and impenetrable because of the technical terms used. In addition, ordinary terms may be used in a specialised way that can be quite different from our day-to-day language. While it is all very well to have a dictionary at hand, it does tend to be off-putting if one needs to use it too frequently. This book is about how to understand architecture and its history in a very practical way, so we explain the terms as we go along. They are starred with an asterisk where necessary and brief definitions appear in the glossary. We live our lives in and around buildings, even those of us who live in the country, yet although our surroundings are familiar, their details can prove elusive. When we travel we notice how the buildings differ from those with which we are familiar. This may be due to different materials, colours, forms and scale. We can describe our homes so that a new visitor will recog- nise them, and perhaps we could even sketch them with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Further afield, however, even the most familiar buildings can acquire a certain fuzziness, rather like an out-of-focus photograph as the following example illustrates. First, select a small group of familiar build- ings, not more than 50 metres long, such as those that form a group with the post office, those near the bus stop or station that you use regu- larly, or those near your home. Then try to describe that group of buildings, or sketch them, as accurately as possible. To do so you will need to remember what the roofs, windows and entrances are like, how many storeys there are, what materials are used, and their colour and texture. You will also need to remember how each building relates to its neighbour and to its wider setting. It is surprising how difficult many of us find this. If you then go on to compare these details with somewhere else where you have spent time, such as on holiday, you will be able to pinpoint some of the major differ- ences between the two. The next step is to think about the reasons for these differences. If a new building has recently appeared in our familiar surround- ings, we tend to look at it very closely. We compare it with what it has replaced and look to see how it relates to its neighbours. We often develop a clear opinion as to whether we think it is a positive addition to our environ- ment, or a negative one. After a short while, however, it becomes virtually impossible to remember the building that it replaced.

2 Introduction

subject further. There may also be buildings that we detest. Appreciating architecture has a lot to do with personal attitudes and we all have our personal prejudices about most things. These prejudices can inhibit our understanding and we need to be aware of them and try to stand back from them. The ways in which people have responded to particular building forms or styles have changed from period to period and from culture to culture. These changes continue today and interpretations vary according to the taste, likes and dislikes of the period. In order to understand a building of any period, we need to be as objective as possible. We need to develop empathy with our period, so that we understand what was happening from the point of view of those who were present at the time. We examine some of the tech- niques that enable us to begin to do this. Understanding buildings means what it says: going out and about and looking at buildings for oneself, not just from the outside, but inside as well. This is the only way we can begin to understand them, and the importance of first-hand experience cannot be overestimated. No photograph, film or video can reproduce the sense of form, space, light and shade, solidity and weight that is gained from a personal visit. These qualities are lost in photographs, for an external view of a building can rarely indicate how thick the walls are, or give a sense of the space around the building or inside it. Furthermore since most photographs are of single buildings, their surround- ings are absent. In this book we have perforce to make do with photographs. Another advantage of visiting buildings is that a close examination may reveal how they were constructed and if they have been altered. However, with the problems of security, the number of buildings that one can visit without making prior arrangements is rather limited. Even religious build- ings nowadays tend to be closed unless there is a service on, and if a service is in progress, then it is not possible to walk about. Public buildings such as railway stations, libraries, museums, stores or banks present fewer prob- lems and provide varying opportunities for seeing a range of buildings both inside and out. Museums of building can provide excellent opportunities for seeing a range of buildings that have often been moved from their original location in order to preserve them. Archaeological sites such as the Inca town of Machu Picchu in South America, c. 1500, or Great Zimbabwe in southern Africa, from c. 1250, are impressive places. Such groups of buildings can be studied in their physical context, but need much interpretation owing to damage, loss and the changes brought about by tourism. Houses open to the public, such as those in the UK run by English Heritage, Historic Scotland or the National Trust, offer another excellent way of visiting buildings inside and out. There are also many amenity and specialist interest groups such as the Chicago Architecture Foundation and the Art Deco* Society of New York that arrange visits to buildings not generally accessible to members of the public. Joining these groups also provides an excellent opportunity for contributing to saving historic buildings.

4 Introduction

The built environment consists of a wide range of building types from the earliest periods of history. Some have been considered architecture, some engineering and others have been termed building. Our understanding of the term ‘architecture’ is quite different today from what it was when the history of architecture first began to be studied seriously. In order to define the scope of the subject matter of this book clearly, we discuss in Chapter 2 what we mean by the terms ‘architecture’ and ‘building’ and what they include. We examine some of the broad range of buildings that have been included in the term ‘architecture’, and we look at traditional buildings, such as cottages or barns and other building types that have in the past been excluded. Our examples include buildings from many different periods and countries, and the captions to our illustrations indicate where they are located. Where this is not specified, then the building is in the UK. We look at the changing role of architects and at the reasons why attention has been focused so strongly on them and on monumental architecture*. Architecture is not only about the material environment, for buildings express our aspirations, our hopes for the future and our beliefs. We look at some of the terminology used, and at what is meant by a variety of terms such as ‘buildings with movement’, ‘buildings that speak’ and ‘sick build- ings’. Meaning and metaphor are important parts of our subject and we look at some of the ways in which these are conveyed. We then go on in Chapter 3 to examine what architectural history is, how the subject developed, how it has been used and how we can begin to under- stand it. To understand why new building types and styles developed we need to look at the social, political, philosophical, technological and economic changes that were taking place, for these provide the context of the devel- opment. We also have to try to enter into the minds of those who created and criticised the buildings at the time they were constructed. This is the only way in which we as individuals can hope to stand outside the subjec- tive prejudices of personal likes and dislikes to which we are all prone. This is a complex task, for architectural history in its broadest sense encom- passes a number of specialist areas, each of which asks different questions and applies different methods. It includes the histories of materials, of construction, and of particular building types such as public houses, temples, factories, forts, hospitals or low-cost housing. It also includes histories of building and planning legislation, archaeology and industrial building and many other areas. Each of these histories offers different insights and has enriched the subject. We look briefly at the development of architectural history as a subject and we look at some of the explanations offered to account for architectural change. Historians, writers and critics of architecture not only identified reasons for architectural change, they evaluated the architec- ture of their day and of the past according to their particular criteria, and we introduce some of these. In Chapter 4 we come to the buildings themselves and their spaces and functions. Buildings may have a practical and a symbolic purpose and the

Introduction 5