Understanding Sensation & Perception: Bottom-up Processing, Attention, & Color Vision | Summaries Voice

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

OBJECTIVE 1: Contrast sensation and perception, and explain

the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing.

1. The perceptual disorder in which a person has lost the

ability to recognize familiar faces is

____PROSOPAGNOSIA_____.

2. The process by which we detect physical energy from the

environment and encode it as neural signals is

____SENSATION_____. The process by which sensations

are organized and interpreted is ____PERCEPTION____.

3. Sensory analysis, which starts at entry level and works

up, is called _____BOTTOM_____ - _____UP________

_____PROCESSING_____. Perceptual analysis, which

works from our experience and expectations is called

____TOP______ - ___DOWN_______

___PROCESSING____.

OBJECTIVE 2: Discuss how our perceptions are directed and

limited by selective attention, noting how we may or may not

be affected by unattended stimuli.

4. When we focus our conscious awareness on a particular

stimulus, we are using ___SELECTIVE______

___ATTENTION______.

5. Your ability to attend to only one voice among many is

called the ____COCKTAIL____ ____PARTY_______

____EFFECT____. Failing to see a visible object when our

attention is directed elsewhere is called

___INATTENTIONAL_____ ___BLINDNESS____.

6. When researchers distracted participants with a counting

task, the participants displayed __INATTENTIONAL____

____BLINDNESS____ and failed to notice a gorilla-suited

assistant who passed through. Two specific forms of this

phenomenon are __CHANGE_____ __BLINDNESS______

and ___CHOICE______ ____BLINDNESS_____. Another

result of distraction involves not noticing that different

people are speaking, called ____CHANGE____

____DEAFNESS____.

7. Some stimuli are so powerful they demand our attention,

causing us to experience ____POP_____ - ___OUT_____.

OBJECTIVE 3: Distinguish between absolute and difference

thresholds, and discuss whether we can sense and be

affected by subliminal or unchanging stimuli.

8. The study of relationships between the physical

characteristics of stimuli and our psychological

experience of them is ____PSYCHOPHYSICS___.

9. The __ABSOLUTE_______ ___THRESHOLD____ refers to

the minimum stimulation necessary for a stimulus to be

detected ____50_____ percent of the time.

10. According to ___SIGNAL_____ ___DETECTION___ theory,

a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and

alertness all influence the detection of a stimulus.

11. Some entrepreneurs claim that exposure to “below

threshold,” or ___SUBLIMINAL____, stimuli can be

persuasive, but their claims are probably unwarranted.

12. Some weak stimuli may trigger in our sensory receptors a

response that is processed by the brain, even though the

response doesn’t cross the threshold into

___CONSCIOUS___ awareness.

13. Under certain conditions, an invisible image or word can

__PRIME____ into a person’s response to a later question.

This illustrates that much of our information processing

occurs ___AUTOMATICALLY___.

14. The minimum difference required to distinguish two

stimuli 50 percent of the time is called the

___DIFFERENCE_____ ___THRESHOLD___. Another

term for this value is the ___JUST____

____NOTICEABLE_____ ___DIFFERENCE (JND)___.

15. The principle that the difference threshold is not a

constant amount, but a constant proportion, is known as

____WEBER’S_____ ___LAW_____. The proportion

depends on the ___STIMULUS____.

16. After constant exposure to an unchanging stimulus, the

receptor cells of our senses begin to fire less vigorously;

this phenomenon is called ___SENSORY____

___ADAPTATION_____.

VISION

OBJECTIVE 4: Describe the characteristics of visible light, and

explain the process by which the eye converts light energy

into neural messages.

1. Stimulus energy is ___TRANSDUCED_____ (transformed)

into ____NEURAL______ messages by our eyes.

2. The visible spectrum of light is a small portion of the

larger spectrum of ___ELECTROMAGNETIC___ energy.

3. The distance from one light wave peak to the next is

called ___WAVELENGTH____. This value determines the

wave’s color, or ____HUE______.

4. The amount of energy in light waves, or

___INTENSITY____, is determined by a wave’s

___AMPLITUDE____, or height, influences the

___BRIGHTNESS____ of a light.

5. Light enters the eye through the __ CORNEA _____, then

passes through a small opening called the

___PUPIL______; the size of this opening is controlled by

the colored ____IRIS______.

6. By changing its curvature, the ___LENS_______ can focus

the image of an object onto the ____RETINA______, the

light-sensitive inner surface of the eye.

7. The process by which the lens changes shape to focus

images is called ___ACCOMMODATION___.

8. The retina’s receptor cells are the ____RODS______ and

____CONES_____.

UNIT 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

OBJECTIVE 1: Contrast sensation and perception, and explain the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing.

The perceptual disorder in which a person has lost the ability to recognize familiar faces is ____PROSOPAGNOSIA_____.
The process by which we detect physical energy from the environment and encode it as neural signals is ____SENSATION_____. The process by which sensations are organized and interpreted is ____PERCEPTION____.
Sensory analysis, which starts at entry level and works up, is called _____BOTTOM_____ - _____UP________ _____PROCESSING_____. Perceptual analysis, which works from our experience and expectations is called ____TOP______ - ___DOWN_______ ___PROCESSING____. OBJECTIVE 2: Discuss how our perceptions are directed and limited by selective attention, noting how we may or may not be affected by unattended stimuli.
When we focus our conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, we are using ___SELECTIVE______ ___ATTENTION______.
Your ability to attend to only one voice among many is called the ____COCKTAIL____ ____PARTY_______ ____EFFECT____. Failing to see a visible object when our attention is directed elsewhere is called ___INATTENTIONAL_____ ___BLINDNESS____.
When researchers distracted participants with a counting task, the participants displayed __INATTENTIONAL____ ____BLINDNESS____ and failed to notice a gorilla-suited assistant who passed through. Two specific forms of this phenomenon are __CHANGE_____ __BLINDNESS______ and ___CHOICE______ ____BLINDNESS_____. Another result of distraction involves not noticing that different people are speaking, called ____CHANGE____ ____DEAFNESS____.
Some stimuli are so powerful they demand our attention, causing us to experience ____POP_____ - ___OUT_____. OBJECTIVE 3: Distinguish between absolute and difference thresholds, and discuss whether we can sense and be affected by subliminal or unchanging stimuli.
The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them is ____PSYCHOPHYSICS___.
The __ABSOLUTE_______ ___THRESHOLD____ refers to the minimum stimulation necessary for a stimulus to be detected ____ 50 _____ percent of the time.
According to ___SIGNAL_____ DETECTION theory, a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness all influence the detection of a stimulus.
Some entrepreneurs claim that exposure to “below threshold,” or ___SUBLIMINAL____, stimuli can be persuasive, but their claims are probably unwarranted.
Some weak stimuli may trigger in our sensory receptors a response that is processed by the brain, even though the response doesn’t cross the threshold into CONSCIOUS awareness.
Under certain conditions, an invisible image or word can __PRIME____ into a person’s response to a later question. This illustrates that much of our information processing occurs AUTOMATICALLY.
The minimum difference required to distinguish two stimuli 50 percent of the time is called the ___DIFFERENCE_____ THRESHOLD. Another term for this value is the ___JUST____ ____NOTICEABLE_____ DIFFERENCE (JND).
The principle that the difference threshold is not a constant amount, but a constant proportion, is known as ____WEBER’S_____ ___LAW_____. The proportion depends on the ___STIMULUS____.
After constant exposure to an unchanging stimulus, the receptor cells of our senses begin to fire less vigorously; this phenomenon is called ___SENSORY____ ___ADAPTATION_____. VISION OBJECTIVE 4: Describe the characteristics of visible light, and explain the process by which the eye converts light energy into neural messages.
Stimulus energy is ___TRANSDUCED_____ (transformed) into ____NEURAL______ messages by our eyes.
The visible spectrum of light is a small portion of the larger spectrum of ELECTROMAGNETIC energy.
The distance from one light wave peak to the next is called ___WAVELENGTH____. This value determines the wave’s color, or ____HUE______.
The amount of energy in light waves, or ___INTENSITY____, is determined by a wave’s ___AMPLITUDE____, or height, influences the ___BRIGHTNESS____ of a light.
Light enters the eye through the __ CORNEA _____, then passes through a small opening called the ___PUPIL______; the size of this opening is controlled by the colored ____IRIS______.
By changing its curvature, the ___LENS_______ can focus the image of an object onto the ____RETINA______, the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye.
The process by which the lens changes shape to focus images is called ACCOMMODATION.
The retina’s receptor cells are the ____RODS______ and ____CONES_____.

UNIT 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

The neural signals produced in the rods and cones activate the neighboring ___BIPOLAR_____ cells, which then activate a network of GANGLION_____ cells. The axons of ganglion cells converge to form the ____OPTIC______ ____NERVE, which carries the visual information to the ___BRAIN______.
Where this nerve leaves the eye, there are no receptors; thus, the area is called the ____BLIND______ ____SPOT____.
Most cones are clustered around the retina’s point of central focus, called the _____FOVEA_______, whereas the rods are concentrated in more ____PERIPHERAL_____ regions of the retina. Many cones have their own ___BIPOLAR_____ cells to communicate with the visual cortex.
It is the ____CONES______ (rods/cones) of the eye that permit the perception of color, whereas ____RODS_____ (rods/cones) enable black-and-white vision.
Unlike cones, in dim light rods are ____SENSITIVE_____ (sensitive/insensitive). Adapting to a darkened room will take the retina approximately ____ 20 _______ minutes. OBJECTIVE 5: Discuss the different levels of processing that occur as information travels from the retina to the brain’s cortex.
Visual information percolates through progressively more ____ABSTRACT______ levels. In the brain, it is routed by the ___THALAMUS____ to the cortex. Hubel and Wiesel discovered that certain neurons in the occipital lobe’s ___VISUAL_____ ____CORTEX____ respond only to specific features of what is viewed. They call these neurons ___FEATURE_____ ____DETECTORS____.
Feature detectors pass their information to higher-level cells in the brain, which respond to specific visual scenes. Research has shown that in monkey brains such cells specialize in responding to a specific ____GAZE________, ____HEAD_____ _____ANGLE____, ____POSTURE______, or ____BODY______ ____MOVEMENT_______. In many cortical areas, teams of cells (____SUPERCELL_____ ____CLUSTERS_____) respond to complex patterns. OBJECTIVE 6: Define parallel processing, and discuss its role in visual information processing.
1. The brain achieves its remarkable speed in visual perception by processing several subdivisions of a stimulus ____________________ (simultaneously/sequentially). This procedure, called ____________________ ____________________, may explain why people who have suffered a stroke may lose just one aspect of vision.
  1. Other brain-damaged people may demonstrate ____BLINDSIGHT_____ by responding to a stimulus that is not consciously perceived. OBJECTIVE 7: Explain how the Young-Helmholtz and opponent- process theories help us understand color vision.
An object appears to be red in color because it ___REFLECTS (REJECTS)______ the long wavelengths of red and because our mental _____CONSTRUCTION____ of the color.
One out of every 50 people is color deficient; this is usually a male because the defect is genetically _____SEX______ - LINKED.
According to the ____YOUNG______ - ___HELMHOLTZ_____ TRICHROMATIC theory, the eyes have three types of color receptors: one reacts most strongly to ___RED_______, one to ___GREEN_______, and one to ___BLUE____.
After staring at a green square for a while, you will see the color red, its __OPPONENT_____ color, as an AFTERIMAGE.
Hering’s theory of color vision is called the ___OPPONENT____ - ____PROCESS_____ theory. According to this theory, after visual information leaves the receptors it is analyzed in terms of pairs of opposing colors: ____RED_____ versus __GREEN____, YELLOW versus BLUE, and ____BLACK______ versus ___WHITE____. Summarize the two stages of color processing. IN THE FIRST STAGE OF COLOR PROCESSING, THE RETINA’S RED, GREEN AND BLUE CONES RESPOND IN VARYING DEGRESS TO DIFFERENT COLOR STIMULI, AS SUGGESTED BY THE THREE-COLOR THEORY. THE RESULTING SIGNALS ARE THEN PROCESSED IN THE THALAMUS BY RED-GREEN, BLUE- YELLOW, AND BLACK-WHITE OPPONENT-PROCESS CELLS, WHICH ARE TURNED “ON” BY ONE WAVELENGTH AND TURNED “OFF” BY ITS OPPONENT. HEARING OBJECTIVE 8: Describe the auditory process, including the stimulus input and the structure and function of the ear.
The stimulus for hearing, or ___AUDITION____ is sound waves, created by the compression and expansion of ____AIR______ ___MOLECULES____.
The amplitude of a sound wave determines the sound’s ___LOUDNESS_____.
The frequency of a sound wave determines the ____PITCH____ we perceive.
Sound energy is measured in units called ___DECIBELS_____. The absolute threshold for hearing is arbitrarily defined as ZERO such units.
The ear is divided into three main parts: the ___OUTER______ ear, the ___MIDDLE_____ ear and the ___INNER______ ear.

Pain is a property of our _PHYSIOLOGY____ as well as our EXPERIENCES____ and ____ATTENTION, and our surrounding ___CULTURE_____.
The pain system ____IS NOT_____ (is/is not) triggered by one specific type of physical energy. The body has specialized NOCICEPTORS_ that detect hurtful stimuli.
Melzack and Wall have proposed a theory of pain called the ____GATE_____ - ____CONTROL____ theory, which proposes that there is a neurological ____GATE______ in the ____SPINAL______ ____CORD_____ that blocks pain signals or lets them through. It may be opened by activation of ____SMALL____ (small/large) nerve fibers and closed by the activation of ____LARGE_______ (small/large) fibers or by information from the ____BRAIN_____.
Pain-producing brain activity may be triggered with our without ___SENSORY______ _____INPUT_______.
A sensation of pain in an amputated leg is referred to as ____PHANTOM______ ____LIMB_______. Another example is TINNITUS, experienced by people who have a ringing-in-the-ears sensation. List some pain control techniques used in health care situations. PAIN CONTROL TECHNIQUES INCLUDE DRUGS, SURGERY, ACUPUNCTURE, THOUGHT DISTRACTION, EXERCISE, HYPNOSIS, RELAXATION TRAINING, ELECTRICAL STIMULATION, AND MASSAGE. SIMILARLY, FOR BURN VICTIMS, DISTRACTION DURING PAINFUL WOULD CARE CAN BE CREATED BY IMMERSION IN A COMPUTER-GENERATED 3 - D WORLD. OBJECTIVE 14: Describe the senses of taste and smell, and comment on the nature of sensory interaction.
The basic taste sensations are __SWEET____, ___SOUR______, ____SALTY_____, _____BITTER_____, and a meaty taste called ____UMAMI_____.
Taste, which is a ___CHEMICAL______ sense, is enabled by the 200 or more ____TASTE______ ___BUDS_______ on the top and sides of the tongue. Each contains a ____PORE_____ that catches food chemicals.
Taste receptors reproduce themselves every ____WEEK OR TWO_____. As we age, the number of taste buds _____DECREASES_____ (increases/decreases/remains unchanged) and our taste sensitivity ___DECREASES_____ (increases/decreases/remains unchanged). Taste is also affected by ____SMOKING_____ and by _ALCOHOL use.
When the sense of smell is blocked, as when we have a cold, foods do not taste the same; this illustrates the principle of ____SENSORY_____ INTERACTION. The ___McGURK______ effect occurs when we SEE________ a speaker saying one syllable while ____HEARING another.
1. In a few rare individuals, the senses become joined in a phenomenon called SYNAESTHESIA.
2. Like taste, smell, or ___OLFACTION_____, is a __CHEMICAL_____ sense. There IS NOT (is/is not) a distinct receptor for each detectable odor.
3. Odors are able to evoke memories and feelings because there is a direct link between the brain area that gets information from the nose and the ancient ____LIMBIC_____ centers associated with memory and emotion. PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION OBJECTIVE 15: Describe Gestalt psychology’s contribution to our understanding of perception, and identify principles of perceptual grouping in form perception.
4. According to the ___GESTALT______ school of psychology, we tend to organize a cluster of sensations into a ___WHOLE____, or form.
5. When we view a scene, we see the central object, or ___FIGURE____, as distinct from surrounding stimuli, or the __GROUND_____.
6. Proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and connectedness are examples of Gestalt rules of GROUPING_.
7. The principle that we organize stimuli into smooth, continuous patterns is called CONTINUITY. The principle that we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object is___CLOSURE___. The grouping of items that are close to each other is the principle of PROXIMITY; the grouping of items that look alike is the principle of SIMILARITY_. The tendency to perceive uniform or attached items as a single unit is the principle of CONNECTEDNESS. OBJECTIVE 16: Explain the binocular and monocular cues we use to perceive depth.
8. The ability to see objects in three dimensions despite their two-dimensional representations on our retinas is called DEPTH____ ____PERCEPTION_. It enables us to estimate ___DISTANCE_____.
9. Gibson and Walk developed the ___VISUAL_____ ___CLIFF____ to test depth perception in infants. They found that each species, by the time it is ____MOBILE____, has the perceptual abilities it needs. Summarize the results of Gibson and Walk’s studies of depth perception. RESEARCH ON THE VISUAL CLIFF SUGGESTS THAT IN MANY SPECIES THE ABILITY TO PERCEIVE DEPTH IS PRESENT AT, OR VERY SHORTLY AFTER, BIRTH.

For questions 7-15, identify the depth perception cue that is defined.

Any cue that requires both eyes: ___BINOCULAR_____.
The greater the difference between the images received by the two eyes, the nearer the object: ___RETINAL____ ___DISPARITY____. 3-D movies simulate this cue by photographing each scene with two cameras.
Any cue that requires either eye alone: MONOCULAR_.
If two objects are presumed to be the same size, the one that casts a smaller retinal image is perceived as farther away: RELATIVE_ ___SIZE____.
An object partially covered by another is seen as farther away: INTERPOSITION_.
Objects lower in the visual field are seen as nearer: ___RELATIVE_____ ____HEIGHT____.
As we move, objects at different distances appear to move at different rates: ___RELATIVE____ __MOTION____.
Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance: ___LINEAR_____ PERSPECTIVE.
The dimmer of two objects seems farther away: ___LIGHT______ ___AND_____ SHADOW. OBJECTIVE 17: State the basic assumption we make in our perceptions of motion, and explain how these perceptions can be deceiving.
Our brain normally computes motion based partially on the assumption that shrinking objects are ____RETREATING___ (approaching/retreating) and enlarging objects are APPROACHING_ (approaching/retreating). Sometimes we are fooled because larger objects seem to move MORE SLOWLY_ (faster/more slowly) than smaller objects.
The brain interprets a rapid series of slightly varying images as __MOVEMENT____. This phenomenon is called STROBOSCOPIC MOVEMENT.
The illusion of movement that results when two adjacent stationary spots of light blink on and off in quick succession is called the ___PHI______ ____PHENOMENON____. OBJECTIVE 18: Explain how perceptual constancies help us to organize our sensations into meaningful patterns.
Our tendency to see objects as unchanging while the stimuli from them change in size, shape, and lightness is called ___PERCEPTUAL____ CONSTANCY.
Due to shape and size constancy, familiar objects ___DO NOT_____ (do/do not) appear to change shape or size despite changes in our RETINAL images of them.
Several illusions, including the ____MOON____ and __PONZO____ illusions, are explained by the interplay between perceived ____SIZE____ and perceived __DISTANCE_____. When distance cues are removed, these illusions are __DIMINISHED____ (diminished/strengthened).
The brain computes an object’s brightness __RELATIVE TO____ (relative to/independent of) surrounding objects.
The amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings is called ____RELATIVE____ ___LUMINANCE____.
The experience of color depends on the surrounding ___CONTEXT____ in which an object is seen. In an unvarying context, a familiar object is seen. In an unvarying context, a familiar object will be perceived as having consistent color, even as the light changes. This phenomenon is called COLOR __CONSTANCY____.
We see color as a result of our brains’ computations of light ___REFLECTED____ by any object relative to its __SURROUNDING____ OBJECTS. PERCEPTUAL INTERPRETATION OBJECTIVE 19: Describe the contributions of restored vision, sensory deprivation, and perceptual adaptation research to our understanding of the nature-nurture interplay in our perceptions.
The idea that knowledge comes from inborn ways of organizing sensory experiences was proposed by the philosopher IMMANUEL KANT_.
On the other side were philosophers who maintained that we learn to perceive the world by experiencing it. One philosopher of this school was JOHN LOCKE.
Studies of cases in which vision has been restored to a person who was blind from birth show that, upon seeing tactilely familiar objects for the first time, the person ___CANNOT____ (can/cannot) recognize them.
Studies of sensory restriction demonstrate that visual experiences during ___INFANCY____ are crucial for perceptual development. Such experiences suggest that there is a ___CRITICAL_____ PERIOD for normal sensory and perceptual development.
Humans given glasses that shift or invert the visual field ____WILL_____ (will/will not) adapt to the distorted perception. This is called ___PERCEPTUAL____ ___ADAPTATION_____.
Animals such as chicks DO NOT ADAPT_ (adapt/do not adapt) to distorting lenses. OBJECTIVE 20: Define perceptual set, and explain why the same stimulus can evoke different perceptions in different contexts.
A mental predisposition that influences perception is called a ___PERCEPTUAL_____ ____SET____.
How a stimulus is perceived depends on the concepts, or SCHEMAS____, we form and the ____CONTEXT in which the stimulus is experienced.
The context of a stimulus creates a TOP-DOWN_ (top- down/bottom-up) expectation that influences our

Understanding Sensation & Perception: Bottom-up Processing, Attention, & Color Vision, Summaries of Voice

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

UNIT 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION