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UNIT 6 APTITUDE: CONCEPT AND
MEASUREMENT*
Structure
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Definition and Nature of Aptitude
6.4 Aptitude and Related Concepts
6.4.1 Aptitude and Intelligence 6.4.2 Aptitude and Achievement 6.4.3 Aptitude and Interest
6.5 Measurement of Aptitude 6.5.1 Uses of Aptitude Tests 6.5.2 Examples of Aptitude Tests 6.5.2.1 Multiple Aptitude Test Batteries 6.5.2.2 Tests Measuring Specific Aptitudes 6.5.2.3 Tests Predicting Academic Success in Colleges
6.6 Advantages and Limitations of Aptitude Tests
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Key Words
6.9 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
6.10 Unit End Questions
6.11 References
6.12 Suggested Readings
6.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
z Define aptitude;
z Know the characteristic features of aptitude;
z Differentiate aptitude from intelligence, achievement and interest;
z Know about some of the widely used aptitude tests; and
z Describe the uses, advantages and limitations of aptitude tests.
6.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit you have read about the assessment of intelligence, particularly about the development of intelligence tests. By now you know that intelligence tests were originally designed to estimate the individual’s general intellectual level by testing a
- Dr. Manaswini Dash, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
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wide variety of mental functions. But soon it was felt that these tests were not giving adequate information about the individual’s abilities. Mostly, they were covering only those abilities that were valued and considered important in the culture for which they were designed, ignoring many others. Psychologists gradually came to realize that the term “intelligence test” was a misnomer, as they were tapping only certain aspects of intelligence.
Moreover, it was also observed that an individual’s performance on different parts or subtests of a test often showed variations. Most intelligence tests were primarily measuring verbal ability with some numerical ability and the ability to find out the relation between abstract figures. A person might obtain relatively high score on a verbal subtest while scoring relatively low on a numerical subtest. On the other hand, another person might have scored low on verbal items, while obtaining an excellent score on numerical subtest. Such inter-subtest performance comparisons are helpful in understanding the individuals’ psychological makeup. But their global or general IQ scores may obscure their true potentiality. Thus, two individuals may have the same IQ, and yet have different abilities. Therefore, it was felt that while evaluating a person, performance on subtests should be considered, so that her/his abilities in different tasks could be known. However, intelligence tests were not adequate enough for assessing the individual’s abilities in different areas separately, because the subtests in a test were too short to be a reliable measure of the specific abilities. Thus tests of special aptitudes were deemed necessary for making intra-individual comparisons. Aptitude can be understood as an ability to acquire a specific type of skill or knowledge. In this Unit, we are going to discuss the concept and measurement of aptitude.
6.3 DEFINITION AND NATURE OF APTITUDE
The word aptitude is derived from the word “aptos” which means ‘fitted for’. Very often words such as ‘potentiality’, ‘capacity’, ‘talent’ etc. are used synonymously with aptitude.
In the Dictionary of Education, aptitude is defined as a “pronounced innate capacity for or ability in a given line of endeavour such as a particular art, school subject or vocation.
In Warren’s Dictionary of Psychology, aptitude has been defined as “a condition or set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to acquire with training some (usually specified) knowledge, skill, or set of responses, such as the ability to speak a language, to produce music” (Bingham, 1942).
English and English (1958) defined the term as “the capacity to acquire proficiency with a given amount of training.”
According to Traxler (1957), “Aptitude is a condition, a quality or a set of qualities which is indicative of the probable extent to which an individual may be able to acquire, under suitable training, some knowledge, understanding, or skill.”
If we analyze all the above definitions, we can discern certain features of aptitude as follows:
z Aptitude is symptomatic or indicative of one’s potentialities.
z Aptitude is the result of interaction of heredity and environment. An individual is born with certain potentialities. After that, the environment helps or hinders the expression of these potentialities.
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A comparison between the two concepts can be described as follows:
z Aptitude can be described as a specific ability of an individual; whereas intelligence refers to a general mental ability cutting across different types of tasks.
z Thus, aptitude has a defined or narrow scope; and intelligence has a broader scope.
z Aptitude has future orientation as it indicates the potential for learning. It does not indicate what the person can do now. Intelligence, on the other hand, indicates the present ability; what the person knows and what he can perform in different areas. Aptitude refers to how well the person can do in future.
z Aptitude refers to the capability the person can achieve with training. Intelligence tests, based on the existing capability of the person, can predict her/his success in different areas involving those mental capabilities.
z In general, aptitude tests are designed and used for career and employment decisions. Intelligence tests are more likely to be used for educational, clinical and research purposes.
6.4.2 Aptitude and Achievement
Aptitude is also different from achievement. In general, aptitude refers to an individual’s potentiality, that is, what she/he can do (but has not yet done). Thus, it is the potential capability of the person or what the person can do without any previous knowledge/ learning. Achievement, on the other hand, refers to what a person has already done. It assesses knowledge which you have already learned. Thus, achievement can refer to your performance at any given point of time in a particular subject (e.g., mathematics), which you have already acquired through training.
The differences between the two concepts can be described as follows:
z Aptitude refers to what the person can do, not what he has done. Achievement refers to what a person has already done. Aptitude tests measure the ability to learn; they have the potential to predict a person’s success in future academic or career field. Achievement tests, on the other hand, assess the existing learning status of the person, i.e., what the person already knows.
z Thus, while aptitude is future-oriented, achievement is past-oriented.
z Aptitude tests measure how well the person will learn in future; achievement tests assess how well the person has learnt in the past.
z Aptitude tests are administered before training is given. Achievement tests are given after training is given.
z Aptitude tests are evaluated in terms of predictive validity, how well they can predict a person’s success in a particular area with training. Achievement tests are evaluated in terms of content validity, how well the person has mastered the particular content. That is why, they are also called ‘content tests’.
6.4.3 Aptitude and Interest
Interests reflect the things that one likes to do regardless of her/his skill. They provide a direction to the development of habits and activities. But a skill will be developed only if both the interest and the necessary talent (aptitude) are present in the individual.
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Interest refers to the liking of a person for a particular thing/activity. For example, I may like music, but I may not have aptitude for it. Here, the interest that is shown may not be the result of my inner potential, but may be due to some other influences such as peer pressure, or school requirement or even parents wanted it. Thus, interests are temporary, not stable. They may change over time.
Even if one has aptitude for a particular thing, if one does not have interest in it, s/he will not put in that much time and effort required for it. For instance, you may have wonderful aptitude for drama and theatre, but without sufficient interest in it, you will not devote the time and effort required to develop the skill.
Similarly, in the absence of sufficient aptitude, even if the individual has the strongest interest, s/he will be able to acquire the skill only to a limited extent. Hence both aptitude and interest are required to perform well in a particular area.
The difference between aptitude and interest are given below.
z Aptitude refers to what the individual can do. However, the person may not have interest in it. Interests reflect the things that one likes to do. Having potential does not guarantee one’s interest in it also.
z Aptitudes do not change over time. They are primarily innate abilities. Interests may change over time with change in the knowledge and experience of the person. Interests are acquired, hence they are influenced by a variety of factors including the parental, peer group, school and media influences.
z Thus, if one has the potential (aptitude) for a particular thing/activity, and also interest in it, then it becomes easier for one to acquire the skills necessary for the activity.
Self Assessment Questions II
- Write the difference between aptitude and achievement.
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6.5 MEASUREMENT OF APTITUDE
In the beginning of the Unit, we have already mentioned that the traditional intelligence tests which were assessing the individual’s general intellectual level and giving a global score were found tobe giving limited information about individual’s true abilities. Two persons obtaining the same global IQ score may be quite different from each other in terms of their special abilities. It was felt that tests of special aptitudes are needed in order to get a true picture of the individual. This resulted in the development of a number of aptitude tests, measuring single aptitude as well as multiple aptitude test batteries.
The development of aptitude tests gained momentum because of two reasons. First, with the use of the statistical technique of ‘factor analysis’, psychologists like Spearman (1904, 1927), Kelley (1928), Thurstone (1938, 1947) and a number of other British and American researchers opined that intelligence is not a unitary construct. It was
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Screening for admission: Most educational institutions select candidates to give admission into different courses on the basis of scores on aptitude tests, e.g., courses on education (B.Ed) and management.
Curricular planning: School administrators use performance on multiple aptitude test batteries as a frame of reference for curricular planning- which courses tobe taught and who are to be taught etc.
6.5.2 Examples of Aptitude Tests
Here we will describe the tests used to assess aptitude. First some of the widely used multiple aptitude test batteries are discussed, following which some tests of specific aptitudes are described. Thereafter some tests used for admission purposesto predict college performance are given.
6.5.2.1 Multiple Aptitude Test Batteries
i) Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)
The Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) is developed by Bennett, Seashore, and Wesman (1947, 1982, 1984). It is one of the most widely and commonly used multiple aptitude test batteries. First published in 1947, the test is now available in its fifth edition (1992). The fifth edition of the battery has been designed for use in educational and career counseling of students in Grades seven through twelve; organized into two levels; one for students in Grades seven to nine and the other for students in Grades ten to twelve. The DAT consists of eight independent tests:
i) Verbal Reasoning (VR)
ii) Numerical Reasoning (NR)
iii) Abstract Reasoning (AR)
iv) Perceptual (Clerical) Speed and Accuracy (PSA)
v) Mechanical Reasoning (MR)
vi) Space Relations (SR)
vii) Spelling (S)
viii) Language Usage (LU)
All the above subtests except the Perceptual (Clerical) Speed and Accuracy are multiple- choice power tests. A power test is one which allows enough time to complete the test, but some of the items are so difficult that no one can get a perfect score. On the contrary, the Clerical Speed and Accuracy is a speed test in which the items are of low difficulty level, but the time limit is too short to finish all the items. Alternate forms of the DAT are available.
A special form of the DAT is available for Personnel and Career Assessment which consists of shortened versions of all the eight tests.
With respect to the psychometric properties of the DAT, reliability (both split-half and alternate-forms) is high. The VR+NR score, due to its correlation with school grades, is often considered as an index of scholastic aptitude. The norms for the fifth edition of the test are derived from a huge sample, as big as 100,000 students. The scores on the eight subtests can be converted to per centile ranks, thus yielding a profile.
The DAT has been translated into a number of other languages. The test has been
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adapted under Indian conditions in Hindi by J.M. Ojha (1965). It is widely used for vocational guidance and research purposes.
You can see the sample items of all the subtests of DAT along with the directions to administer the test at the end of this Unit.
ii) Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB)
The Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) was developed by Jackson (1984, 1994). This test is a paper-and pencil equivalent of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale – Revised (WAIS-R), designed to measure the same aptitudes as the latter. It is a group test. It includes 10 subtests, five verbal and five performance scales to yield Verbal, Performance and Full Scale IQ. All the subtests except one bear the same names as the WAIS-R. The 10 subtests are listed as follows:
Verbal Performance
Information Digit symbol
Comprehension Picture Symbol
Arithmetic Spatial
Similarities Picture arrangement
Vocabulary Object Assembly
The Block Design subtest of WAIS-R has been replaced by the Spatial subtest in MAB. The items are original and are in multiple-choice format. Unlike WAIS-R in which the verbal subtests except Arithmetic do not have any time limit, the MAB verbal subtests contain elements of both power and speed. The items within each of the subtests are arranged in order of increasing difficulty, the beginning items being quite easy and advanced items very difficult.Each subtest has to be performed within seven minutes.
MAB is suitable for adolescents and adults. However, the test is not suitable for persons with below average intelligence/intellectually disturbed or mentally disturbed persons.
Raw scoreson each of the MAB subtests are converted to scaled scores. The sum of scaled scores is then used to find out deviation IQ.The MAB is considered to have psychometric excellence.Research studies have reported strong internal consistency, test-retest reliability as well as construct validity.
The MAB is used in career counseling and personnel selection.
iii) General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) is a multiple aptitude test battery that is used to predict job performances in 100 specific occupations. Though the battery was developed in the 1940s, it has been periodically revised and updated. It is based on factor analysis of 59 tests. The test consists of twelve tests (eight paper-and-pencil tests and four apparatus measures) that yield nine factors such as:
i) General Learning Ability (G)
ii) Verbal Aptitude (V)
iii) Numerical Aptitude (N)
iv) Spatial Aptitude (S)
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6.5.2.2 Tests Measuring Specific Aptitudes
There are a number of tests that measure specific aptitudes. They aim at predicting performance in specific tasks, particularly in vocational endeavor. They are used in employment procedures. Stenquist’s Mechanical Aptitude Test (1921), Thurstone’s Examination in Clerical Work (1922), Minnesota Mechanical Assembly Test, Minnesota Spatial Relations Test, Minnesota Paper Form Board, Johnson O’Connor’s Wiggly Blocks, Sharma’s Mechanical Aptitude Test Battery, General Clerical Aptitude Test,Graphic Arts Test, Musical Aptitude Tests are examples of some of the tests measuring specific aptitudes.
6.5.2.3 Tests Predicting Academic Success in Colleges
A major use of the aptitude tests is prediction of academic success. Aptitude tests are used to make decisions regarding admission into various graduate and professional programmes.
i) Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) was formerly known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test. It was first published by the College Board in 1926. It is used for admission into various colleges. The test is continuously revised and updated. The SAT, with its two parts- SAT-I and SAT-II, assesses reasoning skills and mastery in high school subject matter. The SAT scores are anchored to the scores of a standard reference group which has a mean of 500 and standard deviation of 100.
ii) Graduate Record Exam (GRE)
The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is a multiple-choice and essay test. It is used for admission into graduate programmes in many fields and selection of candidates for advanced training. The test measures verbal, quantitative, and analytical writing aptitude as well as offers subject examinations in a number of fields like Biology, Computer Science, History, Mathematics, Philosophy and Psychology. The scores obtained in the Verbal (GRE-V) and Quantitative (GRE-Q) sections are expressed as standard scores with an approximate mean and standard deviation of 500 and 100 respectively. The Analytical Writing section is rated on a 6-point scale.
The GRE norms vary widely among institutions and among subject fields. For example, the requirement for admission into Physics department could be a substantially higher score on quantitative section than on the verbal section. But for admission into English department a higher verbal score than the quantitative score may be required. Thus, both departments could have quite different norms for the quantitative and verbal sections.
iii) Miller Analogies Test (MAT)
The Miller Analogies Test (MAT) has been published by Pearson Assessments. It is used for selection for admission into graduate courses. The test consists of 120 complex analogy items selected from academic subjects. The test has to be completed within 60 minutes. Parallel forms of the test are available. The test is available in both paper-and- pencil and computer formats. It is a valid predictor of graduate school grades and time taken to finish a graduate degree. Like GRE, the MAT norms are different in different institutions and different departments.
iv) Professional School Tests
Different professional bodies have developed their tests for admission into different professional schools. Names include the Medical College Admission Test (Association
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of American Medical colleges, 2000) , the Dental Admission Test (Division of Educational Measurements, Council on Dental Education, 1994), the Law School Admission Test (Law school Admission council, 2005), and the Graduate Management Admission Test or GMAT (Educational Testing Service, 2004). These tests, like the scholastic aptitude tests, measure verbal and numerical ability. In addition, they also contain items relevant to their respective profession.
The GMAT is available in a computer-adaptive format only and candidates can take the test online at different centers throughout the world.
Self Assessment Questions III
- What are the reasons behind the increase in popularity of aptitude tests?
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- How many subtests are there in the DAT?
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- Which test is considered as a paper-and pencil equivalent of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale – Revised? .....................................................................................................................
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- Name some aptitude tests that are used for admission into graduate courses. .....................................................................................................................
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6.6 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF
APTITUDE TESTS
Aptitude tests have their own advantages as well as limitations. Let us discuss these.
Advantages of Aptitude Tests
- Aptitude tests allow objective comparisons.
Most of the aptitude tests available in the market are standardized tests. Hence, they make it possible to select individuals objectively, be it for admission into schools or employment in organizations. Standardized aptitudes like SAT or GRE can compare students from different areas objectively. Other metrics like marks, Grade Point Average (GPA) or class rank cannot be effectively used for making objective comparisons. Schools differ from each other with respect to their marking standards. In one school, the marking may be very strict while in another school, it may be lenient.
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and how to measure aptitude. Aptitude can be simply understood as an ability to acquire a specific type of skill or knowledge. It refers to one’s potentialities. It is the result of interaction of heredity and environment. Aptitude embraces any characteristic which contributes to learning, including intelligence, achievement, personality, interests and skills. These are the qualities of an individual that can be harnessed by appropriate training.
We learned that aptitude predicts future ability and thus is different from intelligence, achievement and interest.
Due to the demands of the Army, during the Second World War, aptitude tests were highly in use by the Army. With the help of “Factor analysis”, a number of aptitude tests were also developed. Some of them were multiple aptitude tests like DAT, GATB, etc. and others were specific ability tests like the SAT, GRE, and MAT. These tests are used for admission into different colleges, career counseling, vocational placement and training. Though these tests are very helpful, they also have some limitations. So they should be used cautiously.
6.8 KEY WORDS
Aptitude : referes to the individual’s potentialities, which can be expressed with right training.
Interest : reflect the things that one likes to do regardless of her/his skill in it.
Achievement : refers to one’s performance at any given point of time in a particular task or activity, which one has already acquired through training.
Intelligence : refers to a general mental ability across different types of tasks. It indicates the present ability of a person.
Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) : is a widely used aptitude test battery developed by Benett, Seashore and Westman (1947). It consists of eight independent tests in the area of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, spatial relations, spelling and language usage.
6.9 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions I
- Aptitude has been defined as “a condition or set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to acquire with training some (usually specified) knowledge, skill, or set of responses, such as the ability to speak a language, to produce music” (Bingham, in Warren’s Dictionary of Psychology). English and English defined the term as “the capacity to acquire proficiency with a given amount of training.)
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- Aptitude is the result of interaction of heredity and environment. An individual is born with certain potentialities. But they can be harnessed by appropriate training.
Self Assessment Questions II
- Aptitude is an individual’s potentiality, what she/he can do, but achievement refers to what a person has already done. Aptitude tests are used to predict how well a person might perform in school or employment situation, whereas achievement tests are used to determine what the person has already learned prior to being tested.
Self Assessment Questions III
Due to two reasons, aptitude test became popular. First, with the use of ‘Factor analysis’ psychologists realized that intelligence is not a unitary construct; majority of the intelligence tests actually measure a number of separate abilities. The second reason is during World war-II, tests were needed to recruit personnel to various jobs in Army.
Verbal Reasoning, Numerical Reasoning, Abstract Reasoning, Perceptual (Clerical) Speed and Accuracy, Mechanical Reasoning, Space Relations, Spelling, and Language Usage.
The Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) developed by Jackson (1984, 1994).
The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), and the Miller Analogies Test (MAT).
6.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Define aptitude. Discuss its nature.
Compare aptitude with intelligence, achievement and interest.
Discuss some multiple aptitude test batteries.
Discuss the advantages and limitations of aptitude tests.
6.11 REFERENCES
Anastasi, A. (1994). The K-ABC in historical and contemporary perspective. Journal of Special Education, 18, 357-366.
Anastasi, A. & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological Testing. Singapore: Pearson education.
Bennet, G. K., Seashore, H. G., & Wesman, A. G. (1984). Differential AptitudeTests: Technical Supplement. San Antonio, TX: Psychological corporation.
Bingham, W. V. (1942).The army personnel classification system. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 220 , 18-28.
Clatworthy, G. (n.d.). Can Aptitude Test Really Predict Employee Success? Retrieved from www.humanresources.com/1565/can-aptitude-tests-really-predict-employee- success/
Cohen, Hsin-Yi (2012, Decemeber 31). Aptitude vs. Intelligence. Retrieved from http://www.aboutintelligence.co.uk/aptitude-intelligence.html
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NUMERICAL ABILITY
(Sample items and directions given in the subtests of DAT)
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(Sample items and directions given in the subtests of DAT)
