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USINGUSING MEANS-ENDMEANS-END THEORYTHEORY TOTO UNDERSTANDUNDERSTAND
THETHE OUTDOOROUTDOOR ADVENTUREADVENTURE EXPERIENCEEXPERIENCE
MamieMamie GoldenbergGoldenberg DavidDavid KlenoskyKlenosky LeoLeo McAvoyMcAvoy andand TomTom HolmanHolman
GreenGreen Mt.Mt. CollegeCollege PurduePurdue UniversityUniversity UniversityUniversity ofof MinnesotaMinnesota
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
AccordingAccording toto FordFord (1981),(1981), outdooroutdoor educa
out odologyodology knownknown asas ladderingladdering werewere developeddeveloped toto
educa Means-endMeans-end theorytheory andand itsits associatedassociated methmeth
tiontion isis "education"education in,in, about,about, andand forfor thethe out
doors,doors, implyingimplying aa place,place, aa topic,topic, andand aa reason"reason" understandunderstand howhow consumersconsumers thinkthink aboutabout productsproducts
..(p.(p. 14).14). AnotherAnother workingworking definitiondefinition statedstated thatthat oror servicesservices (Gutman,(Gutman, 1982;1982; ReynoldsReynolds && GutGut
outdooroutdoor educationeducation isis "an"an experientialexperiential methodmethod ofof man,man, 1988).1988). "Means-end"Means-end theorytheory seeksseeks toto charac~charac~
learninglearning whichwhich takestakes placeplace primarilyprimarily throughthrough terizeterize thethe relationshipsrelationships amongamong particularparticular objectsobjects
sensorysensory involvementinvolvement withwith thethe out-of-doors"out-of-doors" oror behaviors,behaviors, 'the'the means,'means,' andand thethe outcomesoutcomes andand
(priest(priest && Gass,Gass, 1997,1997, p.p. 17).17). PriestPriest andand GassGass personalpersonal valuesvalues importantimportant toto thethe individual,individual, 'the'the
alsoalso defineddefined outdooroutdoor adventureadventure programsprograms asas ends'"ends'" (Klenosky,(Klenosky, Frauman,Frauman, Norman,Norman, &&
thosethose thatthat useuse challengingchallenging experiencesexperiences inin thethe Gengler,Gengler, 1998,1998, p.p. 27).27). MoreMore specifically,specifically, thethe
outdoorsoutdoors toto promotepromote personalpersonal andand groupgroup develdevel theorytheory characterizescharacterizes thethe relationshipsrelationships amongamong
opment.opment. threethree keykey concepts:concepts: attributes,attributes, consequences,consequences, andand
personalpersonal values.values. AttributesAttributes referrefer toto thethe characcharac
ThisThis researchresearch developeddeveloped aa betterbetter underunder teristicsteristics ofof thethe productproduct oror service.service. ForFor anan OutOut
standingstanding ofof thethe linkageslinkages betweenbetween outdooroutdoor advenadven wardward BoundBound course,course, somesome ofof thethe attributesattributes inin
and cludeclude thethe lengthlength ofof thethe course,course, locationlocation ofof thethe tureture programprogram (Outward(Outward Bound)Bound) experiencesexperiences and
Previously course,course, activitiesactivities donedone whilewhile onon course,course, andand thethe outcomesoutcomes usingusing means-endmeans-end analysis.analysis. Previously
thethe means-endmeans-end approachapproach hadhad beenbeen usedused toto underunder numbernumber ofof individualsindividuals inin thethe group.group. ConseConse
standstand thethe outcomesoutcomes ofof recreationalrecreational participationparticipation quencesquences referrefer toto thethe benefits,benefits, whichwhich areare thethe dede
inin aa ropesropes coursecourse programprogram (Goldenberg(Goldenberg 1997;1997; siredsired outcomes,outcomes, andand alsoalso costs/risks,costs/risks, oror undesirundesir
Goldenberg,Goldenberg, Klenosky,Klenosky, O'Leary,O'Leary, && Templ.in,Templ.in, ableable outcomes.outcomes. ConsequencesConsequences forfor anan OutwardOutward
2000).2000). ToTo date,date, however,however, means-endmeans-end analysisanalysis BoundBound coursecourse maymay bebe thatthat participantsparticipants learnlearn toto
hadhad notnot beenbeen usedused toto examineexamine thethe outcomesoutcomes ofof workwork together,together, learnlearn skillsskills thatthat areare neededneeded toto
.. broaderbroader outdooroutdoor programprogram experiences,experiences, suchsuch asas anan functionfunction inin thethe outdooroutdoor setting,setting, oror justjust learnlearn limilimi-
OutwardOutward BoundBound course.course. AccordingAccording toto GoldenGolden .. tationstations andand strengthsstrengths asas anan individualindividual oror group.group.
bergberg etet aI.aI. (2000),(2000), "additional"additional researchresearch shouldshould bebe PersonalPersonal valuesvalues referrefer toto "highly"highly abstractabstract conseconse
conductedconducted toto betterbetter understandunderstand thisthis benefitbenefit andand quencesquences thatthat summarizesummarize desireddesired end-statesend-states ofof
determinedetermine itsits rolerole andand generalizabilitygeneralizability inin otherother...... being"being" (Goldenberg(Goldenberg etet aI.,aI., 2000,2000, p.p. 212).212). ValuesValues
adventureadventure educationeducation settings"settings" (p.(p. 221-222).221-222). thatthat maymay bebe importantimportant forfor OutwardOutward BoundBound parpar
ticipantsticipants includeinclude aa sensesense ofof belonging,belonging, exciteexcite
BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND
ment,ment, self-fulfillment,self-fulfillment, funfun andand enjoymentenjoyment oflife,oflife,
andand aa sensesense ofof accomplishment.accomplishment.
ResearchResearch inin outdooroutdoor educationeducation hashas expandedexpanded
an
RatherRather thanthan treatingtreating thesethese threethree elements,elements, overover thethe pastpast severalseveral yearsyears andand therethere hashas beenbeen an
outcomes
thethe attributes,attributes, consequences,consequences, andand values,values, asas inin increasedincreased emphasisemphasis onon examiningexamining thethe outcomes
ofof outdooroutdoor educationeducation experiences.experiences. Means-endMeans-end
dependentdependent ofof eacheach other,other, means-endmeans-end theorytheory isis
analysisanalysis goesgoes beyondbeyond lookinglooking simplysimply atat the
basedbased onon thethe viewview thatthat thesethese threethree elementselements areare the
educa
fundamentallyfundamentally interrelated.interrelated. Specifically,Specifically, accordaccord benefitsbenefits fromfrom participatingparticipating inin anan outdooroutdoor educa
the
inging toto thethe theory,theory, product/serviceproduct/service attributesattributes reprep tiontion experience.experience. Means-endMeans-end theorytheory examinesexamines the
higher
resentresent thethe "means""means" byby whichwhich consumersconsumers obtainobtain linkageslinkages betweenbetween thethe benefitsbenefits andand otherother higher
values.
desireddesired consequences/benefitsconsequences/benefits (as(as wellwell asas avoidavoid levellevel outcomesoutcomes andand importantimportant personalpersonal values.
undesiredundesired consequences/costs)consequences/costs) andand achieveachieve imim
USINGUSING MEANS-ENDMEANS-END THEORYTHEORY TOTO UNDERSTANDUNDERSTAND THETHE OUTDOOROUTDOOR ADVNETUREADVNETURE EXPERIENCEEXPERIENCE
portantportant personalpersonal valuesvalues oror "ends""ends" (Gutman(Gutman
Means-endMeans-end theorytheory hashas typicallytypically beenbeen appliedapplied
toto betterbetter understandunderstand consumerconsumer decision-makingdecision-making
behaviorbehavior inin aa varietyvariety ofof product/serviceproduct/service settings.settings.
ForFor example,example, means-endmeans-end studiesstudies havehave beenbeen concon
ductedducted toto examineexamine thethe factorsfactors involvedinvolved inin purpur
chasingchasing aa greetinggreeting cardcard (Walker(Walker &.&. Olson,Olson, 1991),1991),
.. selectingselecting aa skiski destinationdestination (Klenosky,(Klenosky, Gengler,Gengler,
&& Mulvey,Mulvey, 1993),1993), selectingselecting aa springspring breakbreak
destinationdestination (Klenosky,(Klenosky, 2002),2002), andand selectingselecting
amongamong statestate parkpark interpretiveinterpretive programsprograms
(Klenosky(Klenosky etet aI.,aI., 1998).1998). TheThe means-endmeans-end apap
proachproach waswas alsoalso appliedapplied toto exam.ineexam.ine ropesropes coursecourse
outcomesoutcomes (Goldenberg(Goldenberg 1997;1997; GoldenbergGoldenberg etet aI.,aI.,
2000).2000). TheThe currentcurrent studystudy waswas uniqueunique inin thatthat itit
waswas thethe fITstfITst applicationapplication ofof means-endmeans-end theorytheory toto
involveinvolve outdooroutdoor adventureadventure programming.programming. ItIt waswas
alsoalso uniqueunique inin thatthat itit appliedapplied means-endmeans-end theorytheory
toto understandunderstand thethe factorsfactors associatedassociated withwith concon
sumptionsumption oror participationparticipation ratherrather thanthan thosethose inin
volvedvolved inin productproduct oror serviceservice decision-making.decision-making.
PURPOSEPURPOSE OFOF STUDYSTUDY
TheThe researchresearch reportedreported herehere builtbuilt onon thethe
foundationfoundation ofof thethe earlierearlier ropesropes coursecourse studystudy byby
examiningexamining aa broaderbroader outdooroutdoor adventureadventure experiexperi
ence.ence. MoreMore specifically,specifically, thethe purposepurpose ofof thisthis rere
searchsearch waswas toto useuse thethe means-endmeans-end approachapproach toto
developdevelop aa betterbetter understandingunderstanding ofof thethe outcomesoutcomes
obtainedobtained fromfrom completingcompleting anan OutwardOutward BoundBound
course.course. Specifically,Specifically, thethe studystudy examinedexamined thethe
linkageslinkages betweenbetween thethe attributesattributes ofof thethe serser
vice/programvice/program experiencedexperienced (in(in thisthis case,case, thethe eleele
mentsments ofof anan OutwardOutward BoundBound course)course) andand thethe
benefitsbenefits andand higher-levelhigher-level outcomesoutcomes andand personalpersonal
valuesvalues obtainedobtained oror reinforcedreinforced byby completingcompleting thethe
course.course.
LITERATURELITERATURE REVIEWREVIEW
BeforeBefore continuing,continuing, itit isis usefuluseful toto understandunderstand howhow
thisthis researchresearch contributescontributes toto thethe broaderbroader outdooroutdoor
adventureadventure educationeducation literature.literature.
OutdoorOutdoor AdventureAdventure EducationEducation ProgramsPrograms
OutdoorOutdoor adventureadventure educationeducation programsprograms areare aa
fonnfonn ofof experientialexperiential education.education. ExperientialExperiential
educationeducation isis "learning"learning byby doing."doing." JohnJohn DeweyDewey
waswas oneone ofof thethe firstfirst educatorseducators whowho wrotewrote aboutabout
andand practicedpracticed experientialexperiential learning.learning. "Dewey's"Dewey's
learninglearning sequencesequence includedincluded bothboth theorytheory andand exex
perience"perience" (Wurdinger(Wurdinger && Priest,Priest, 1999,1999, p.p. 187).187).
CharacteristicsCharacteristics ofof experientialexperiential educationeducation thatthat
havehave beenbeen associatedassociated withwith effectiveeffective studentstudent
learninglearning includeinclude thatthat experienceexperience isis thethe bestbest
teacher,teacher, humanshumans dodo learnlearn byby doing,doing, usingusing allall
sensessenses toto learnlearn isis effective,effective, knowledgeknowledge shouldshould bebe
acquiredacquired throughthrough experience,experience, andand "the"the whatwhat andand
thethe howhow areare inseparableinseparable counterpartscounterparts forfor goodgood
teaching"teaching" (Freeberg(Freeberg && Taylor,Taylor, 1963,1963, p.p. 3).3). ExEx
perientialperiential educationeducation cancan occuroccur inin variousvarious setset
tings,tings, suchsuch asas ropesropes courses,courses, climbingclimbing walls,walls, serser
vicevice learning,learning, internships,internships, classroomclassroom instruction,instruction,
andand wildernesswilderness adventures.adventures.
WildernessWilderness tripstrips occuroccur inin thethe wildernesswilderness setset
ting,ting, aa settingsetting thatthat humanshumans dodo notnot control.control. AA
wildernesswilderness areaarea isis aa physicalphysical andand conceptualconceptual
place,place, whichwhich isis "relative"relative ratherrather thanthan anan absoluteabsolute
conceptionconception andand condition"condition" (Miles,(Miles, 1999,1999, p.p. 321).321).
TheThe wildernesswilderness providesprovides anan environmentenvironment forfor
challenge,challenge, growth,growth, andand developmentdevelopment ofof bothboth inin
dividualsdividuals andand groups.groups. TheThe wildernesswilderness isis usedused byby
millionsmillions ofof peoplepeople everyevery yearyear forfor individualindividual
growthgrowth andand challenge,challenge, groupgroup dynamics,dynamics, andand
therapeutictherapeutic intentionsintentions (Ewert(Ewert && McAvoy,McAvoy, 2000).2000).
AccordingAccording toto FrieseFriese (1996)(1996) overover 700700 organizaorganiza
tionstions offeroffer wildernesswilderness programsprograms forfor personalpersonal
growth,growth, andand accordingaccording toto GagerGager (1996),(1996), thesethese
programsprograms areare increasingincreasing inin numbersnumbers byby aboutabout 1515
percentpercent perper year.year.
CommonCommon featuresfeatures ofof outdooroutdoor adventureadventure eduedu
cationcation programsprograms includeinclude thethe settingsetting inin whichwhich
theythey occur,occur, whichwhich isis usuallyusually thethe outdoorsoutdoors oror aa
wildernesswilderness setting.setting. TheyThey usuallyusually involveinvolve smallsmall
groups,groups, rangingranging inin sizessizes upup toto 1616 people.people. TheyThey
usuallyusually requirerequire masterymastery ofof skillsskills toto meetmeet physicalphysical
and/orand/or mentalmental challenges·challenges· thatthat thethe individualindividual oror
groupgroup maymay face.face. TheseThese challengeschallenges involveinvolve
groupgroup problemproblem solvingsolving andand decision-makingdecision-making
skills.skills. UsuallyUsually withwith outdooroutdoor educationeducation propro
grams,grams, thethe leadershipleadership actsacts moremore asas aa facilitatorfacilitator oror
instructorinstructor andand notnot asas aa guideguide oror aa leader.leader. ProPro
gramsgrams cancan requirerequire aa varietyvariety ofof physicalphysical activitiesactivities
andand challengeschallenges (Hattie,(Hattie, Marsh,Marsh, Neill,Neill, && RichRich
~rds,~rds, 1997),1997), suchsuch asas backpackingbackpacking oror rockrock climbclimb
mg.mg.
USINGUSING MEANS-ENDMEANS-END THEORYTHEORY TOTO UNDERSTANDUNDERSTAND THETHE OUTDOOROUTDOOR ADVNETUREADVNETURE EXPERIENCEEXPERIENCE
dering"dering" (Reynolds(Reynolds && Gutman,Gutman, 1988).1988). Similarly,Similarly,
thethe seriesseries ofof responsesresponses linkinglinking aa particularparticular outout
comecome toto aa personalpersonal valuevalue isis referredreferred toto asas aa ladlad
der.der. AnAn exampleexample fromfrom thisthis datadata ofof aa ladderladder inin
cludescludes thethe attributeattribute ofof "the"the completioncompletion ofof thethe
course"course" (course(course completion),completion), followedfollowed byby thethe
consequenceconsequence ofof "1"1 hadhad doubtsdoubts aboutabout whetherwhether II
couldcould completecomplete thethe coursecourse well"well" (personal(personal chalchal
lenges),lenges), whichwhich linkedlinked toto thethe valuevalue ofof "complet"complet
inging itit mademade meme feelfeel 11 accomplishedaccomplished something"something"
(a(a sensesense ofof accomplishment).accomplishment).
DATADATA ANALYSISANALYSIS
TheThe datadata obtainedobtained fromfrom eacheach respondentrespondent waswas
editededited andand enteredentered intointo aa computercomputer programprogram
calledcalled LadderMapLadderMap (Gengler(Gengler && Reynolds,Reynolds, 1995).1995).
AsAs thethe conceptsconcepts werewere enteredentered intointo thethe program,program,
contentcontent codescodes werewere formedformed basedbased onon phrasesphrases oror
keykey wordswords thatthat emerged.emerged. TheseThese contentcontent codescodes
werewere codedcoded byby twotwo researchers,researchers, reviewedreviewed byby anan
independentindependent coder,coder, andand thenthen reviewedreviewed byby twotwo
facultyfaculty members.members. AA seriesseries ofof hierarchicalhierarchical valuevalue
mapsmaps (HVMs),(HVMs), whichwhich providedprovided aa graphicalgraphical sumsum
marymary ofof thethe relationshipsrelationships andand linkslinks betweenbetween thethe
attributes,attributes, consequences,consequences, andand valuesvalues werewere thenthen
constructed.constructed. EachEach HVMHVM summarizedsummarized thethe keykey
linkageslinkages amongamong thethe outcomesoutcomes andand personalpersonal
valuesvalues thatthat emergedemerged fromfrom contentcontent analysisanalysis propro
cedures.cedures. WhileWhile creatingcreating thethe HVMs,HVMs, thethe rere
searchersearcher determineddetermined whichwhich itemsitems andand relationrelation
shipsships shouldshould bebe representedrepresented andand wherewhere thesethese
itemsitems shouldshould bebe placedplaced onon thethe HVMHVM (Golden(Golden
bergberg etet al.,al., 2000)2000) (Figure(Figure 1).1). TheThe sizesize ofof thethe circir
clecle representingrepresenting anan outcomeoutcome reflectedreflected thethe numnum
berber ofof respondentsrespondents whowho mentionedmentioned thethe concept,concept,
whilewhile thethe thicknessthickness ofof thethe lineslines onon thethe HVMHVM
connectingconnecting thethe circlescircles reflectedreflected thethe numbernumber ofof
timestimes thethe outcomesoutcomes werewere linkedlinked together.together. TheThe
largerlarger thethe circlecircle oror thethe thickerthicker thethe line,line, thethe moremore
frequentlyfrequently thethe conceptconcept oror linkagelinkage occurred:occurred:
TheThe relationshiprelationship amongamong thethe conceptsconcepts onon thethe
HVMHVM providedprovided usefuluseful insightinsight intointo thethe outcomesoutcomes
andand higher-levelhigher-level valuesvalues associatedassociated withwith thethe exex
perienceperience ofof participatingparticipating inin anan OutwardOutward BoundBound
course.course. TheThe concreteconcrete outcomesoutcomes atat thethe bottombottom ofof
thethe mapmap areare thethe keykey aspectsaspects thatthat helphelp createcreate thethe
higherhigher valuevalue outcomesoutcomes shownshown atat thethe toptop ofof thethe
map.map.
RESULTSRESULTS ANDAND ANALYSISANALYSIS
OfOf thethe 294294 questionnairesquestionnaires thatthat werewere disdis
tributedtributed toto coursecourse participants,participants, aa totaltotal ofof 216216
werewere returned,returned, representingrepresenting aa 73.5%73.5% returnreturn rate.rate.
StudyStudy participantsparticipants rangedranged inin ageage fromfrom 14-6614-
yearsyears old,old, withwith mostmost (83.3%)(83.3%) betweenbetween 1414 toto 1818
yearsyears old.old. ParticipantsParticipants completedcompleted coursescourses rangrang
inging inin lengthlength fromfrom 44 toto 2121 days,days, withwith halfhalf (50%)(50%)
lastinglasting 2121 days.days. TheThe majoritymajority ofof respondentsrespondents
werewere malemale (57.4%),(57.4%), whitewhite (84.3%),(84.3%), andand alsoalso stustu
dentsdents (90.3%).(90.3%). Twenty-threeTwenty-three percentpercent receivedreceived aa
scholarshipscholarship toto attendattend OutwardOutward Bound.Bound. AA largelarge
majoritymajority ofof participantsparticipants (92.6%)(92.6%) wouldwould recomrecom
mendmend anan OutwardOutward BoundBound coursecourse toto aa friend.friend.
ContentContent categories,categories, oror themes,.themes,. werewere genergener
atedated fromfrom thethe data.data. TheThe listlist ofof attributesattributes yieldedyielded
1515 categoriescategories rangingranging fromfrom thethe entireentire coursecourse toto
specificspecific coursecourse components,components, suchsuch asas solosolo oror rockrock
climbing.climbing. FourteenFourteen differentdifferent codescodes forfor thethe concon
sequencessequences werewere generated,generated, andand eighteight valuevalue codescodes
werewere created.created. TheThe contentcontent codescodes werewere develdevel
opedoped firstfirst byby twotwo researchersresearchers workingworking together,together,
thenthen byby anan independentindependent codercoder whowho examinedexamined
30%30% ofof thethe data,data, andand finallyfinally byby aa thirdthird andand forthforth
researcherresearcher whowho reviewedreviewed thethe codescodes andand codingcoding
assignments.assignments.
TheThe hierarchicalhierarchical valuevalue mapmap (or(or HVM)HVM) gengen
eratederated forfor thethe entireentire sample,sample, shownshown inin FigureFigure 1,1,
isis basedbased onon aa cutoffcutoff pointpoint ofof ninenine associationsassociations
betweenbetween conceptsconcepts whichwhich representsrepresents 62.162.1 %% ofof thethe
associationsassociations amongamong thethe conceptsconcepts inin respondents'respondents'
laddersladders (for(for aa discussiondiscussion ofof thethe detailsdetails involvedinvolved
inin creatingcreating anan HVMHVM seesee GoldenbergGoldenberg etet aI.,aI.,
TheThe primaryprimary attributesattributes listedlisted byby participantsparticipants
inin theirtheir orderorder ofof responseresponse includedincluded thethe overalloverall
course,course, coursecourse components,components, interactions,interactions, rockrock
climbing,climbing, expeditioning,expeditioning, andand campcraft.campcraft. TheThe
significantsignificant consequencesconsequences includedincluded relationshipsrelationships
withwith others,others, knowledge,knowledge, andand personalpersonal
growth/challenges.growth/challenges. TheThe significantsignificant valuesvalues werewere
transference,transference, self-awareness,self-awareness, self-confidence,self-confidence,
andand personalpersonal goals/values.goals/values.
GOLDENBERG,GOLDENBERG, MCAVOY,MCAVOY, KLENOSKY,KLENOSKY, && HOLMANHOLMAN
VALUEVALUE
oo
ConsequenceConsequence
FF
AClllEVEMENTAClllEVEMENT OFOF AA ~~ ~~ attributeattribute
PERSONALPERSONAL GOALSNALUEGOALSNALUE FUNFUN ANDAND ENJOENJO TT OFOF LIFELIFE ASENSEOFACCOMPLSHMENTASENSEOFACCOMPLSHMENT
n=57n= n=64n=
SELF-AWARENESS/SELF-AWARENESS/
IMPROVEMENT/FULFILLMENTIMPROVEMENT/FULFILLMENT
WARMWARM RELATIONSHIPSRELATIONSHIPS WIlliWIlli OTIlERSOTIlERS
n=I07n=I n=30n=
II
leadershipleadership
opportunitiesopportunities
\e\e
JJ
coursecourse overalloverall
lFI02lFI
FigureFigure 1.1. HierarchicalHierarchical ValueValue MapMap forfor OutwardOutward BoundBound ParticipantsParticipants (n=216).(n=216).
GOLDENBERG,GOLDENBERG, MCAVOY,MCAVOY, KLENOSKY,KLENOSKY, && HOLMANHOLMAN
searchsearch couldcould bebe conductedconducted toto exploreexplore thethe issueissue
..ofof whetherwhether "transference,""transference," oneone ofof thethe moremore inin
terestingteresting findingsfindings ofof thethe presentpresent study,study, diddid occur.occur.
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