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The aim of this master thesis is to find out how Disney represents Polynesia and the Polynesian culture in the movie Moana. It is expected that the values of ...
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COURSE: Master Thesis in Media and Communication Science with Specialization in International Communication PROGRAMME: International Communication AUTHOR: Melanie Nauta TUTOR: Florencia Enghel SEMESTER: VT 18
JÖNKÖPING UNIVERSITY School of Education and Communication Box 1026, SE-551 11 Jönköping, Sweden +46 (0)36 101000 Master thesis, 15 credits Course: Master Thesis in Media and Communication Science with Specialization in International Communication Term: Spring 2018 ABSTRACT Writer: Melanie Nauta Title: Walt Disney’s Moana. “ We are Polynesia ”. Subtitle: Language: A CDA of Disney’s representation of the Polynesian culture inside Moana English Pages: 54 Disney is known for their family animation movies with a non-western or indigenous cultural background. Nevertheless, Disney is basically very influential for the perception of cultures by a global audience. Many studies have proven that Disney’s depiction of a certain represented culture has not always been that clean. Of course two side notes are that Disney does make movies from an American dominant perspective and second, there is no such thing as a ‘real’ or ‘correct’ culture. Now, with the movie Moana freshly released in 2016, Disney took a step in the indigenous Polynesian culture. This research uses a thorough Critical Discourse Analysis to analyse how Disney portrays Polynesia and the Polynesian culture inside four selected samples of the movie Moana. This analysis is combined with the theories and concepts of Americanisation, Disneyfication and cultural appropriation to find out mixtures of the portrayed Polynesian culture with American and Disney values. Interesting findings were that Disney indeed portrays a hotchpotch of many cultures that can be found in Polynesia. Disney took care of highlighting the culture in the general storyline, in the characters and in the small details. Disney uses details of Polynesian mythology and the history around the ancient voyagers and wayfinding techniques for the storyline. What Disney emphasises is the importance of family, their history and their culture. Disney always portrays the culture with a certain emission of power and pride. However, the American dominancy is still noticeable. For example, the depiction of the coconut and the plumeria flower are signs of Americanised Polynesia. The American and Disney values are all visible during the whole movie and can be found in quotes, gestures and behaviour of characters as Moana, the ocean and demigod Maui. Especially Maui is being portrayed as the ‘American dominant hero’ even though Maui is considered to be a honoured and popular Polynesian demigod. Keywords: Disney, Moana, Culture, Disneyfication, Americanisation, Cultural appropriation, Critical Discourse Analysis
Table 1. The Classic Disney Formula and Classic Hollywood Cinema.. .................................... 17 Table 2. The important movie characters. ................................................................................ 21
The Walt Disney Company started in 1920 when Walt Disney and his brother started creating Mickey Mouse cartoons. Disney grew gradually, independent and manufactured different kinds of stories, characters and experiences that reinforce key elements of the American culture since 1930. Today Disney remains a dominant and influential player in the market of children and adult entertainment business in the world (Wasko, 2001). Disney is therefore also a dominant influencer upon other cultures. Moana is the newest animation movie from Disney portraying the indigenous Polynesian culture. The movie is produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and directed by John Musker and Ron Clements, two American senior males (IMDB, 2016). Musker and Clements wanted to portray Polynesia and the culture right and took a number of steps to achieve that. Starting with creating a proper voice-cast which consist mostly of South Pacific actors. Most are from New Zealand and some are from Hawaii, Maori and Samoa. For example, Dwayne Johnson (The Rock), a famous American actor and wrestler, is originally descendant from Samoa (Moana, 2016 ; Dwayne Johnson, 2017). For proper Polynesian inspiration the filmmakers went on two trips to the islands of Polynesia (Robertson, 2016). The first trip was more story focused. For example the filmmakers discovered that Polynesian voyagers had stopped sailing for a 1,000 years after sailing for 3,000 years. The reason for this gap of voyaging is still a mystery and is called ‘the long pause’ (Kirch, 2002 ). The filmmakers also encountered the many stories and achievements of popular Polynesian demigod Maui and decided to include Maui in the storyline. According to Westervelt (2010), Maui is a demigod that appears in many Polynesian folkloric tales. However, the many Polynesian stories do slightly defer from the Polynesian islands. This also applies for the many stories around demigod Maui and his achievements (Westervelt, 2010). The second trip was all about research upon environment, attributes, habits, music, dance and visuals specifically. About Moana’s island Motunui, the directors tell Robertson (2016) that the island is not real but an art-directed amalgam of various South Pacific islands as Samoa, Fiji, Tetiaroa, Tahiti, Bora Bora, New Zealand and Moorea. All the islands belong to Polynesia, which is the biggest island area in the South Pacific compared to Melanesia and Micronesia (The Conversation, 2017). One found misconception related to the portrayed Polynesian island is the appearance of the plumeria flower that actually came to Hawaii after the first encounter with Europeans. Osnat Shurer considers this being a modern update that adds a splash of colour (Robinson, 2016 ; Davesgarden, 2013). To treat the culture with respect, the filmmakers decided to work with locals, which became the work group called the Oceanic Story Trust for five years. The Oceanic Story Trust contains a group of Polynesian native people among two choreographers, a master tattooist, an archaeologist, a filmmaker
from Samoa, some elders, a wayfinder and a fisherman. The group gave the filmmakers insights and critiques on portraying the culture. Producer Osnat Shurer explained that the plan was not to make a documentary which means they will not be precise with the Polynesian culture. The only thing what they wanted to ensure is to be respectful with the given inspiration (Loria, 2016). For example Disney did decide to implement the deep meanings of Polynesian tattoos. According to Krutak (2013), Polynesian tattoos do represent deep meanings that mostly men wore. The filmmakers also learned that the ocean is more than just water. The ocean, what is basically called ‘Moana’ in the Hawaiian and Maori language, gives life to the islands and connects all the islands together. Polynesians talk gentle to it as if it was a living soul. That is how the filmmakers came to the idea of making the ocean a character (The Walt Disney studio, 2016). For inspiration on music and dance, the filmmakers visited the Pacific Island Music Festival in Polynesia where people celebrate traditional dances, costumes, and food (Barone, 2016). To get the dances as authentic as possible, Disney hired choreographer Tiana Liufau who introduced Disney to several typical Polynesian dances (Funtastic life, 2017). For the music, the filmmakers collaborated with Opetaia Foa'I who comes from Samoa and who is the founder and lead singer of the New Zealand band called Te Vaka (Opetaiafoai, n.d.). All the songs are therefore sung in the Samoan language (The Disney Wiki, n.d.). Next, the challenge of the costumes was laid in the hands of visual development artist Neysa Bové. In an interview with Kucharski (2016), Neysa Bové mentions that she only had two fabrics called ‘tapa’, which is made from the mulberry tree bark, and ‘pandanus leaves’ to work with. These two fabrics are considered to be the ones the Pacific Islanders were using for clothes. Also Neysa Bové mentions that the colour red and red feathers played an important role since it refers to a royalty status. Another challenge was all about portraying the tradition behind wayfinding and navigation with the stars right. The sky and ocean play a major role in Polynesia because the voyagers used both for navigation. According to The Conversation (2017), Disney was detailed with the portrayal of typical ancient Polynesian positional astronomy and celestial navigation. This corresponds with the traditional way of sailing in Oceania that can be called wayfinding (Paine, 20 13). According to Paine (2013), the voyagers used celestial navigation and techniques for reading the water and analysing the behaviour of birds. The Conversation (2017) analysed the possibility of Moana measuring Orion’s Belt what concludes that they were sailing to East, reconciles with the fact that stars are not fixed in time. Even though Disney is armed with the Oceanic Story Trust, some anthropologist still find they depict racial stereotypes inside the movie. For example, the article of Herman (2016) on the website Smithsonian depicts the little creatures Kakamora with their coconut armours: “ ’Coconut’ is also used as a racial slur against Pacific Islanders as well as other brown-
The importance of this research lays all in remembering the importance of representing another (non-western or indigenous) culture correctly. An incorrect representation of a culture can only cause criticism and negativity from inhabitants of the specific culture and is a big source for creating stereotypes in the minds of the global audience. The study can help make viewers aware of what could be Polynesian culture and what could be Americanisation. For example, parents regarding to showing Moana to their children and the influence it will have on their perception. Disney is a large company established in the United States of America that has a big influence upon global media. In this global media, Disney is a role model for American popular culture. According to Setiawati (2016), people do not always realise the messages of Disney inside the movies that are considered to be Americanisation and consumerism. Moana will be the first glimpse into Polynesian culture for many children across the world. Parents and teachers should be well aware of the depiction of a certain culture by another culture to minimise stereotypes, racism and discrimination by adults and children.
This chapter contains a thorough introduction to the study field. Previous studies about cultural representation about other comparable Disney movies and about the movie Moana are analysed and will be used as a foundation for this study. The Walt Disney Company is a popular subject to base different kind of studies on, since it is known by the whole world and can be seen as a role model for the American culture. This gives Disney a certain power for influencing culture, norms, values and thoughts on certain topics. Non-western cultural representation in Disney movies turned out to be a trend in the 90s and the beginning of the 21 st century. Nine popular animation movies with a represented cultural otherness distinguished from time and space have been released to date. Movies such as Aladdin in 1992 (Arabic), Brother Bear in 2003 (Native American of the Pacific Northwest) and recently Moana in 2016 (Polynesian) (D23, 2018). Moana is the first digital animated movie after 13 years that represents a non- western culture. To gather information about the above-mentioned topics online desk research will be done. For instance, by consulting Jönköping University’s library and the online database and by using other online databases such as Google Scholar, Google Books, Communication Source, EBCSO, ProQuest, Sagejournals and DiVA Portal. Keywords to find the right information were the actual title of the movie such as ‘Moana’, ‘Pocahontas’, ‘Aladdin’ and ‘Mulan’, compared with search words as ‘Disney’, ‘Culture’, ‘Americanisation’, ‘representation’ and ‘Disney formula’. For example: ‘Moana’ AND ‘Disney’ AND ‘Culture’ OR ‘Cultural representation’. Particular source types were excluded such as newspapers, blogs,
podcasts and websites and some source types were included such as trade journals, scholarly journals and dissertations and theses.
The portrayal of cultures in Disney movies is a popular topic for empirical studies. In all the found studies Disney has been mentioned as an icon for the American culture that can dominate a minority culture portrayed in their movies (Tian & Xiong, 2013 ; Ragnhage & Wendel, 2015 ; Giovanni, 2003 ; Yin, 2011 ; Setiawati, 2016 ; Robertson, 2016 ; Benhamou, 2014). This is understandable when you consider that Disney has a global and varying target group and is therefore an influencing factor on their audience’s interpretation of other cultures. Children are especially sensitive to this. For example, Russell Means (n.d.), who is a Native American activist who worked with the production of Disney’s movie Pocahontas, explained the following: “Because it’s Disney, millions of children forever are going to see this in their most formative years, and it’s going to affect how they see my people and our culture all the way through their lives” (As cited in Wasko, 2 001 ). According to Schweizer (1998), around 74 percent of children have the urge to copy what they have seen in movies (Schweizer, 1998). This means that children mostly accept the animated stories of Disney as the truth and do not question the representativeness of the shown culture. Schweizer (1998) believes that children identify themselves with characters in movies and this can influence their perception of cultures in the world. For what is known about the represented non-western and/or indigenous cultures in the Disney movies, the terms ‘cultural imperialism’, ‘American domination’ and Americanisation is often used. For example Setiawati (2013) explains “…in its efforts to expose viewers to other cultures, the storytelling can leave people that are culturally aware or sensitive with a sense that the films are merely bastardisation from the original tales and culture. It also promotes a sense of west over east or white supremacy. It is in line with the definition of Americanisation as the term used for describing the influence of the United States of America on the culture of other countries” (p. 81). Other theories that came across in several studies were transculturalisation, Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions and the Orientalism theory of Edward Said (1978). The Orientalism theory describes the attitude of western cultures within using stories of other traditions and cultures for the western’s own sake. Orientalism is one of the first works of analysing mediated western-styled representation of otherness, which means other cultures. It briefly means the western style of dominating and restructuring over the ‘Orient’. The three Disney movies Pocahontas, Mulan and Aladdin from the 90s are highlighted in previous research regarding to the strong visibility of non-western cultural
breakfast, Mushu is voice-acted by Eddy Murphy in a street-smart lingo and last, the ancestral spirits are seen rocking out to western music (Chan, 2002 ; Tian & Xiong, 2013). Even though Mulan is Americanised, Aladdin can be seen as “ the most culturally violent of all Disney animations ” (Said, 1978 ; Giovanni, 2003). Disney dominated the Arabic culture and race and for Disney, race is a sensitive area. According to several articles, Disney has been accused a few times of racisms and this happened mostly while portraying another culture. Setiawati (2008) mentions the movie Aladdin (1992) as a good example. Aladdin represents ethnic and nationalistic stereotypes inside the Arabic culture. For example, all the evil characters in Aladdin speak with Arabic accents and the heroes Aladdin and Jasmine are lighter skinned and speak with an American accent. Also, the princess Jasmine is more portrayed as a belly dancer instead of a royal princess. Belly dancers are considered having a lower status in the Arab culture. The racism can also be shown in the song lyrics of ‘Arabian Night’: “ Where they cut off your ear If they don’t like your face, It’s barbaric, but hey, it’s home ”. In 1997 Disney changed the lines, after the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee complained, into the lines: ““ Where it’s flat and immense, And the heat is intense, It’s barbaric, but hey, it’s home ”, which is less discriminating but where the barbaric culture of the Arab world is still stressed by Disney. Last, the genie, who is kind of Aladdin’s sidekick, is Americanised since it is a character that transforms in a lot of Americanised forms and uses a funny language with American references and accents (Giovanni, 2003). Another example is the study of Giovanni (2003). He mentions the movie Hercules regarding the Americanising of Greek mythology and the character Hercules having a strong American accent. Next, Pocahontas falls directly in love with the first white man she sees, which is a form of ‘white supremacy’ (Benhamou, 2014). Silverman (2001) states the following about Pocahontas: ”Pocahontas (released in 1995) is the only Disney animated movie to deal with a true historical event. Disney was quite aware of the risks of making this film and consulted with various Native Americans. Nevertheless, when it came out, Pocahontas was strongly criticized for being romanticized, fictionalized, sanitized and nationalized for popular consumption .” (p. 308). Silverman (2001) was not the only one pointing out Pocahontas. Many studies have pointed out about Pocahontas being a native-American Barbie doll, suitable for big American merchandising (Setiawati, 2008 ; Benhamou, 2014). However, according to Wasko (2001), Disney did do research on the Native-American culture for Pocahontas. The filmmakers visited the original Jamestown colony and talked to historians, academics and descendants of Pocahontas. After the many criticism, Disney has tried to play it safe within the next try. According to Silverman (2001): ”...In the aftermath of Pocahontas, it appears that Disney decided to play it safe with Groove’s Inca Peru, even though foundation myths of the USA were not at stake.” (p. 308). This means that Disney got many criticism upon the
romantisation of Pocahontas, that Disney tried to act safe with the next non-western movie ”The Emperor’s New Groove” which, according to the filmmakers, is not based on a specific country in South America, even though there are signs of Ancient Peru such as the Inca Empire (Silverman, 2001).
Only two literature studies about the movie Moana are found. Therefore, a lack of knowledge appears about how Polynesia is portrayed in the movie Moana according to others than the Disney filmmakers. One of the two is a content analysis about the relationship between good and evil in three different Disney movies including Moana (Yüksel, 2017). The overall conclusion is that the movie portrays different forms of evil and that the evil can mostly be found in demigod Maui, the Kakamora creatures, giant coconut crab Tamatoa and Te Kā. The instrumental evil is shown several times. First it is shown in Maui who wants to gain the power of rule over life by stealing Te Fiti’s heart. This is also the case for the Kakamora creatures who are tempted to steal Te Fiti’s heart. However, for Maui this action can also be seen as idealistic evil, because Maui’s motives are good and on behalf of the people. Third, Maui’s deed can be seen as stupidity because Maui did not foresee the consequences of his actions. The instrumental evil follows up in Maui’s tricky actions and having the goal in mind of escaping with the boat without helping Moana on her journey. Lava monster Te Kā is a good example of demonic evil. Te Kā can be described as problematic, since Te Kā lacks a motive for her violent behaviour towards Maui and Moana. Every evil has a good side and vice versa; Te Kā is actually the good Te Fiti and trickster Maui is also depicted as a hero (Yüksel, 2017). This outcome resembles the suggestions of Herman’s (2016) and Craig (1989). Herman (2016) suggested that Te Fiti could be a reference to the name Tahiti which is an existing island located approximately in the middle of the Polynesian triangle (Herman, 2016). A mythological link for Te Kā could be with the Hawaiian goddess of volcanos called Pele who was characterised by her temper and jealousy (Craig, 1989). The second study highlights gender portrayal in the movie. The whole approach on gender stereotypes can also be seen as a feature for Classic Disney. Gender is a popular topic for studies of Disney movies. This has to do with the facts that gender equality is a rising topic and that Disney has an interesting evolution of the portrayal of women from the beginning until now. Streiff and Dundes (2017) are researching gender stereotypes in the movie Moana by using content analysis and symbolic features and images. The authors analyse it with the semiology of Barthes (1967) and mentions the denotation and connotation from specific features in the film. One of the conclusions of this study is that the goddess Te Fiti is a particular female gender stereotype and the stereotype of good and evil because Te Fiti is portrayed as a
What the theories have in common is that they are all related to imperialism and especially cultural imperialism. Culture is a wide and connotative concept that shapes the way that a certain group of people live, taking all the aspects of that certain group in account. According to anthropologists, culture can be defined as all the learned and shared concepts, beliefs and values that all work in an adaptive system (Lyman, 2007). Imperialism can be seen as a form of a political hierarchy on an international level in which one political polity is dominant and controlling upon another political polity. Given the history, imperialism was usually accompanied by colonisation and military interventions of strong nations upon less strong ones (Lake, 2015). Cultural imperialism is a type of imperialism that contains the influence of a culture of a dominant country upon the culture of another less-powerful and minority country. It includes the process of undermining minority cultures by the dominant culture (Mains, 2009). Culture imperialism includes the use of media and marketing tools for the dissemination of a dominant culture into other minority and foreign cultures. Disney participates in this economic system by being one of many global American companies that keeps a focus on diversity and a message where a global audience can agree on beyond topics as religion and social differences. This phenomena is the American cultural imperialism. Only this cultural imperialism does have a counter-effect upon minority cultures. Spreading American products, services and lifestyles goes along with the dissemination of American values such as freedom and democracy. These values do perhaps sound appealing but will cause the gradually disappearance of many other cultures around the world due to the dominating American culture (Sayre & King, 2010). This development imagines the large scale of Disney’s cultural influence in a global landscape since the American culture is popular and cultures in general are inevitably affected by each other. For this study theories and concepts on a cultural basis are useful. The first one is the theory of Americanisation, the second one the concept of Disneyfication and the third one is the concept of cultural appropriation.
Americanisation is a theory that has been used a lot in researches that analyse the portrayal of other cultures through the United Stated. The modern concept of cultural imperialism is mostly associated with the powerful cultural influence of America. According to Pieterse (2009), this form of cultural imperialism is named Americanisation. Cultural imperialism is mostly embedded with critiques upon the United States’ export of media programming to other countries. They serve as a propaganda model for the American culture and consumerism-based capitalism which, according to Morris (2008), is Americanisation of the media. In this process, the cultures in the receiving countries are dominated (Morris, 2008). Overall, Americanisation can be seen as a threat for replacing traditional habits, but also as a positive influence through
representing American values as ‘gender equality’ (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018 ; Pietserse, 2009 ; Siapera, 2010 ). Setiawati (2016) also mentions the different concepts of Americanisation in Disney movies. Disney adapts cultures with good intent but ends up portraying feminism, discrimination, racism or rebelliousness in the movies which can be framed in a totally different perspective for the inhabitants of the depicted culture. For Disney it is about creating a Disney formula with the American culture that must be well liked by the consumers to progress the movie sales (Setiawati, 2016). Therefore, Americanisation can be considered as emphasizing typical American values and behaviour and emphasizing the Classic Disney Formula also known as the concept of Disneyfication.
Disneyfication is the next dimension of Americanisation that only applies to Disney itself. Thoroughly explained, Disneyfication is associated with the typical spreading of cultural products of the Disney company. To achieve this, products have to get Disneyfied, which means the transformation of an object in a way that will make it fit into their own Disney values. It can be considered that this Disneyfication does apply for Disney’s Moana as well. Wasko (2001) associates the concept of Disneyfication with sanitisation and Americanisation of the essence and motivation of the original tales to fit inside the American market. Disney takes material from other cultural, historical or mythological background and Disneyfies this into the Classic Disney Formula that fits within the standard movie format. Fairy tales and children’s stories are getting Disneyfied which can lead to a high amount of criticism from folklorists, educators and children’s literature experts (Wasko, 2001). Thus, Disneyfication is the values and strategy that can be found behind the Disney movies and that characterises the movie being typically Disney, no matter what cultural, folkloric or historic story or theme is portrayed (Wasko, 2001). All these characteristics can be collected under ‘The Classic Disney Formula’. This formula matches with the “Classic Hollywood Cinema” model of Bordwell, Staiger and Thompson (1985). The model can be used as a guideline for implementing the concept of Disneyfication (table 1). Table 1. The Classic Disney Formula and Classic Hollywood Cinema Source:(Bordwell, Staiger & Thomson, 1985).
Bredin (2008) points out that cultural knowledge and aspects are expressed through media and popular communication such as movies. Roughly said cultural appropriation is related to the representation of a specific culture by the media. Cultural representation is what the media portrays from a different country, region or culture. This representation is usually interpreted as a representation of how it actually looks like, even though this does not always have to be correct and to correspond with the country, region or culture. A represented culture by the media is never an exact reality, even when producers try to be as cultural correct as possible (Long & Wall, 2012). When it comes to cultural appropriation it is not always certain if the dominant culture represents the dominated culture in an ‘appropriate’ way which can cause racial outcomes (Bredin, 2008). However, cultural appropriation does not always have to be harmful or offensive. The overall suggestion of Young’s interpretation of cultural appropriation is that a majority culture has to be sensitive to the treatment of minority cultures by being as respectful as possible and to avoid unnecessary offence (Young, 208).
The empirical study of the original English speaking version of the movie Moana is going to be a qualitative research. The literature review has shown that qualitative research is a popular method for analysing specific data of Disney movies. The reason is because most studies conducted a critical overall look upon different movie aspects such as music, visuals, setting, storyline, text and other additional elements. Analysing movies with all the different aspects can lead to complications. Mikos (2014) addresses three complications that a researcher encounters while analysing movies. The first is the difficulty of constantly moving images, the second is that the analysis contains the almost endless opportunity to find things and the third is the fact that there is no universal method for the structure of a movie. A CDA comes the closest to analysing all the aspects of a movie in one. This study is also focusing on textual and visual aspects with the goal to find Polynesian, Americanised and Disneyfied features. Qualitative research can help with that because it highlights text and visuals rather than referring to quantification of the data (Bryman, 2012).
The CDA will be done on certain selected scenes from the movie Moana. The purpose is to answer the two sub questions that will give the foundation for answering the main question formulated in chapter 3. The attention will be paid to cultural characteristics by following the semiology tools of Barthes (1967). Briefly explained, CDA is a method that is mostly used for analysing image and text, such as advertisements, videos, movies and news articles. It can help
to find hidden meaning behind the image or text. In concrete terms, CDA reveals a critical look upon the sample that is analysed (Machin & Mayr, 2012). The study will contain an inductive and deductive approach upon the findings of the analysis. Induction and deduction research are forms of logical, good and creative reasoning that are used together with observations of the analysis (Dylan, 2014). However, this way of reasoning can also be seen as a weakness of the CDA. It states that the results will be subjective because they rely on the interpretation of the researcher and cannot be seen as actual stated facts. This influences the validity and reliability of the study (Machin & Mayr, 2012). The main tools that will be used are mainly semiotic tools used to analyse visual characteristics, but since the language of song lyrics are also included, a tool that can function for both visual and text analysis will be taken into account. Therefore, the method can also be called the Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis (MCDA) (Machin and Mayr, 2012). The chosen tools are briefly explained below:
