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Hello learners. Welcome to the module on Indian languages. In this chapter, we'll introduce Indian Languages and Literature, the role of Sanskrit, and the significance of scriptures to current society. Introduction to Indian Languages Indian languages are languages spoken in India that are classed as Indo-European particularly the Indo-Iranian branch, Dravidian, Austroasiatic particularly Munda, and Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman in particular. Assamese, Bengali or Bangla, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, and Urdu are all members of the Indo-Aryan group of Indo-Iranian languages. The Dravidian language family includes Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu. The Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family includes Manipuri or Meitei spoken in Manipur and Bodo spoken in northeastern India. The Munda language family includes Santali. Except for the Khasian languages spoken in Meghalaya, northeastern India, and the Nicobarese languages spoken in the Nicobar Islands in the Andaman Sea, just to the northwest of the Indonesian island of Sumatra—both of which are classified as part of the Mon-Khmer subfamily of Austroasiatic—the other Austronesian languages are spoken in Southeast Asia. The Indo-Aryan languages, which are spoken by 78.05 percent of Indians, belong to multiple linguistic families. Dravidian languages are spoken by 19.64% of Indians, and both groups are frequently referred to as Indic languages. The remaining 2.31 percent of the population speaks Austroasiatic, Sino–Tibetan, and Tai–Kadai languages. According to the Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. India has 22 major languages with approximately 720 dialects written in 13 distinct scripts. The official languages of India are Hindi which has 420 million speakers and English which is also widely spoken. The census of 2011 acknowledges 1369 rationalised mother tongues and 1474 names that were handled as 'unclassified' and consigned to the 'other' mother tongue category out of 19,569 raw linguistic connections. Introduction to Literature Literature is a broad term that refers to any collection of written material, but it is also used to refer to writings that are considered to be art forms, such as prose fiction, drama, and poetry. The term has broadened in recent decades to include oral literature, most of which has been transcribed. Literature can have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political purpose in addition to recording, preserving, and transferring knowledge and amusement. Nonfiction genres such as biography, diaries, memoir, correspondence, and the essay can all be considered part of literature as an art form. Nonfictional books, articles, and other printed information on a particular subject are included in the broad definition of literature. The name comes from the Latin literatura/litteratura, which means "learning, writing, grammar," and was originally "writing produced with letters," from litera/littera, which means "letter." In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts.
Print technological advancements have enabled an ever-increasing diffusion and proliferation of written works, which now includes electronic literature. Literature helps us to travel through time and learn about life on the planet from those who came before us. It can have a deeper understanding of and appreciation for different cultures. It can help us to learn about history through the ways it is documented, such as manuscripts and oral history. Literature serves as an enormous information base. Great inventors' research papers and literary works by famous scientists frequently tell anecdotes about their significant discoveries and inferences. Current scientific and technological developments are chronicled so that the rest of the world is aware of them. Several ancient scriptures presenting accounts of human evolution and narratives of human life in those times have proven to be extremely beneficial to humanity. As a result, literature has always been a reliable source of information. Sanskrit Sanskrit is considered the oldest language in Hinduism, having been used by the Hindu Celestial Gods for communication and dialogue, and then by the Indo-Aryans. In Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, Sanskrit is commonly used. The title 'Sanskrit' comes from the combination of the prefix 'Sam' meaning 'samyak,' which means 'completely,' and 'krit,' which means 'done.' Thus, the name denotes communicating, reading, listening, and the use of vocabulary to transcend and communicate an emotion that is totally or entirely done. Despite being an extremely complicated language with a large vocabulary, it is still frequently used in the reading of sacred books and hymns today In Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, the Sanskrit language has long been the primary medium of communication. Sanskrit literature has a long history of use in ancient poetry, drama, science, and religious and philosophical books. Let’s now look at the role of Sanskrit. Many Indian languages have their roots in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is used to write the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Dharmasutras. A wide range of secular and regional literature is also available. We will be able to better comprehend our civilization and appreciate the diversity and complexity of our culture by reading about the languages and literature developed in the past. Our country's most ancient language is Sanskrit. It is one of the Indian Constitution's twenty-two official languages. Sanskrit is maybe the only language that has crossed geographical and cultural boundaries. There is no portion of India that has not contributed to or been touched by this language, from north to south and east to west. Kalidasa's writings have added to the treasury of Sanskrit writings' beauty. Significance of Scriptures to the Current Society Scriptures from the Latin Scriptura, which means "writing" are sacred texts that serve a range of roles in a religious tradition's individual and collective existence. Scriptures can be utilised to generate a deeper relationship with the divine, communicate spiritual truths, foster collective identity, and guide individual and communal spiritual practice. The study of Scripture has become an intellectual pursuit in modern times. Sacred texts from different civilizations are increasingly being studied in academic
Hello everyone, Today in this session, we will discuss on the Other Sanskrit literature Development of Sanskrit literature The development of Sanskrit grammar began with Panini in 400 BC with his book Asthadhyayi being the oldest book in Sanskrit grammar.The chaste form of Sanskrit developed between 300 to 200 BC and was a refined version of Vedic Sanskrit.The first evidence of the use of Sanskrit can be found in the inscriptions of Rudradaman at Junagarh in the present Southern Gujarat region. However, The Gupta period when the use of Sanskrit in poetries can be traced. This is totally a period of creation of pure literature which is evident in works such as Mahakavyas ( epics ) and Khandakavyas (semi-epics).In the field of Sanskrit literature, The Gupta period is known as the period of unique creation because a variety of literary works developed during this reign. Another important aspect of it is related to the ornate style in literary works. Many of the plays developed during the Gupta period were also written in Sanskrit. However, it is to be noted that one of the features of these plays was the use of Sanskrit language by the characters of high varna and the use of Prakrit language by women and Shudras. Classical Sanskrit Literature
- Most of the literature in Sanskrit has been divided into the Vedic and Classical categories.
- The two epics: Mahabharata and Ramayana are also part of the classical category. Irrespective of their centrality to the Hindu religion, these epics can also be considered to be the pre-cursors of Sanskrit Kavya ( epic poetry ), nataka ( classical drama ), and other treatises on medicine, statecraft, grammar, astronomy, mathematics, etc.
- Most of this Sanskrit literature was bound by the rules of grammar that have been explained brilliantly in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, a treatise on the rigid rules which bind the Sanskrit language. Ashtadhyayi:
- The only surviving foundational and analytical source of Sanskrit grammar , Ashtadhyayi (literally, “eight chapters”), was written by Panini and is believed to have been published in the 4th century BCE.
- Despite the fact that India has more than 5000 spoken languages, everyone agrees that Sanskrit is the only sacred language and the source of all known sacred literature. The standardization of the language, which is still used in various forms now, was done by Panini. Sanskrit Drama
- One of the most popular genres of lyric poetry and prose is the popular romantic tales whose sole purpose was to entertain the public or Lokaranjana.
- These were usually written in the form of stories and yet they gave a unique perspective on life. These were usually written in the form of elaborate dramas.
- The rules regarding performance, acting, gestures, stage direction, and acting have been illustrated in the Natyashastra by Bharata.
- Major dramas written during the ancient period are:
- Malavikagnimitra - The love story of the maiden of Queen and Agnimitra the son of Pushyamitra Shunga.
- Kalidasa - Vikramorvasiya - The love story of Vikram and Urvasi.
- Abhigyana Shakunthalam - The recognition of Shakuntala.
- Sudraka-Mricchakatika (The little clay cart) - The love story of young brahmin Charudatta with a wealthy courtesan.
- Vishakadatta - Mudrarakshasa - Devi Chandraguptam- Is a political drama and
narrates the ascent of king Chandragupta Maurya to power in India-
- Bhavabhutti-Uttara Ramacharitham (The latter life of Rama) - It was written in 700 AD.
- Bhasa-Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream)- Pancharatra-Urubhanga (story of Dhuryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima).
- Ratnavalli - About the love story of princess Ratnavalli, daughter of the King of Ceylon and King Udayana. The mention of the celebration of Holi for the first time can be found here.
- Harshavardhana-Naganandha - Story of how Prince Jimutavahana gives up his own body to stop a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda. One unique character in this drama is an invocation to Lord Budha in the Nandi verse.
- Priyadarsika - Union of Udayana and Priyadarsika, daughter of king Dritavarman. Sanskrit Poetry
- This genre is also called Kavya or poetry.
- Unlike the drama section where the story is the main focus of the text, poetry concentrates more on the form, style, figure of speech, etc.
- One of the greatest Sanskrit poets is Kalidasa who wrote Kumarasambhava ( the birth of Kumar or Kariya, the son of Shiva and Parvati ), and Raghuvamsa ( the dynasty of the Raghus ).
- He also wrote two smaller epics called Meghaduta ( the cloud messenger ) and Ritusamhara ( medley of seasons ).
- One should not forget to mention the contribution of poets like Harisena who wrote during the Gupta period.
- He wrote several poems in praise of the valor of Samudra Gupta and it was so well appreciated that it was inscribed on the Allahabad pillar.
- Another extremely popular Sanskrit poet was Jayadeva who wrote Gita Govinda in the 12th century. It concentrates on the life and escapades of Lord Krishna. The text combines elements of devotion to Lord Krishna, his love for Radha, and the beauty of nature.
- Other major poems are Kiratarjuniya written by Bharavi in 6 th century AD and Sishupalavadha written by Magha in 7 th century AD.
- Other Major Sanskrit texts
- Several books were written about the sciences and state governance in Sanskrit.
- Dharmasutras:
- Historians argue that between 500 to 200 BC, several major books on law were written and compiled, which are called the Dharmasutras. These were compiled alongside the smritis that are known as Dharmashastras.
- These are the basis of the laws governing the subjects of most of the Hindu kingdoms. These not only elucidate the rules according to which property could be held, sold, or transferred but also elaborate on the punishments for offenses ranging from fraud to murder.
- Manusmriti ( laws of Manu ):
- Which defines the role of men and women in society, their interaction at a social plane, and the code of conduct that they were supposed to follow. The Manusmriti might have been written and compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD.
- Arthashastra:
3.2 Indian Philosophy Hello everyone, Today in this session, we will discuss on the great Epics of our country, Ramayana and Mahabaratha
- Our two great epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana of Valmiki is the original Ramayana. It is called Adikavya and Maharishi Valmiki is known as Adi Kavi. The Ramayana presents a picture of an ideal society.
- The other epic, the Mahabharata, was written by Ved Vyas. Originally, it was written in Sanskrit and contained 8800 verses and was called “Jaya” or the collection dealing with victory.
- These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
- The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian languages. The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
- Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today.
- These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
- The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian languages. The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
- Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today. Let’s see the significance of these epics one after other
- The characteristics of Hinduism, as just set forth, are best reflected in the Bhagavad- Gita which may, indeed, be regarded as the principal scripture of this new religious ideology.
- They are also reflected in the character of Krsna, its enunciator, as portrayed in the great epic, the Mahabharata
- Mahabaratha and its Reference with 4 purusharthas. The four purusharthas are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.
- Mahabaratha, as an epic, Its vastness is aptly matched by the encyclopaedic nature of its contents and the universality of its appeal.
- The claim is traditionally made, and fully justified, that in matters pertaining to dharma (religion and ethics), artha (material progress and prosperity), kama (enjoyment of the pleasures of personal and social life), and moksa (spiritual emancipation), whatever is found in this epic may be found elsewhere; but what is not found in it will be impossible to find anywhere else.
- The Mahabharata, which must have assumed its present form in the first centuries before and after Christ, is traditionally believed to consist of 100,000 stanzas divided into eighteen parvans.
- The kernel of the Mahabharata story is briefly this:
- The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by Duryodhana, descended from common ancestors.
- Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira to a game
of dice.
- As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to Duryodhana and is then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers and DraupadJ, the common consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years, followed by one year during which they must live incognito.
- But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to give even a fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
- A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the Pandavas regain their lost kingdom.
- The kernel of the Mahabharata story is briefly this:
- The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by Duryodhana, descended from common ancestors.
- Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira to a game of dice.
- As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to Duryodhana and is then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers and DraupadJ, the common consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years, followed by one year during which they must live incognito.
- But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to give even a fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
- A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the Pandavas regain their lost kingdom.
- The kernel of the Mahabharata story is briefly this:
- The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by Duryodhana, descended from common ancestors.
- Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira to a game of dice.
- As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to Duryodhana and is then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers and DraupadJ, the common consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years, followed by one year during which they must live incognito.
- But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to give even a fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
- A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the Pandavas regain their lost kingdom.
- In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with examples and analogies.
- This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a parochial, self-contained guide to life.
- In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.
- This was mainly because the Bhagvad Gita spoke of positiveness in human actions. It also spoke of duty towards God and human beings alike forgetting about the results.
- You will appreciate the fact that the Gita has been translated nearly in all the main langauges of the world Ramayana
- If the Mahabharata (with the Harivamsa) glorifies the Krsna incarnation, the other epic, the Ramayana, gives an account of the Rama incarnation.
- This incarnation is traditionally believed to have been earlier than the Krsna
Famous Tamil Literature of South India. Hello Everyone, In the last session, we discussed on Introduction to Indian Philosophy and Famous Sanskrit literatures of India. Today in this session, we will discuss on Famous Tamil Literature of South India.
- South India, with its rich history and stunning landscapes, has provided the setting for some of the greatest epics in the ancient world.
- In ancient times the association or academy of the most learned men of the Tamil land was called ‘Sangam’ (or ‘Cankam’), whose chief function was promotion of literature. Later Tamil writers mention the existence of three literary academies (Sangams) at different periods. The last academy is credited with the corpus of literature now known as ‘Sangam Works Let’s see the ancient and famous literatures of South India, starting with Tolkappiyam
- Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or ‘the preserver of ancient institutions’, was written by Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest extant Tamil grammar dating back to 500 B.C.
- It lays down rules for different kinds of poetical compositions drawn from the examples furnished by the best works available at that time.
- Iyal is elucidated clearly and systematically in Tolkappiyam.
- Containing about 1,610 suttirams (aphorisms), it is in three parts-ezhuttu (orthography), Sol (etymology), and porul (literary conventions and usages)-each with nine sections.
- While the first two parts are interesting from both linguistic and philological points of view, the third, poruladhikdram, is most valuable as it gives a glimpse of the political, social, and religious life of the people during the period when the author of this treatise lived.
- The principal works of the third Sangam have come down to us in the shape of anthologies of poems. The two compilations forming the corpus of the poetry of the third Sangam are Ettuttogai (eight anthologies) and Pattuppattu (ten idylls),
- The anthologies of the third Sangam consist of poems divided into two broad categories-aham or interior and puram or exterior. The former concerns all phases of love between men and women. An allegory of the different stages through which the soul of man passes from its manifestation in the body to its final unification with the Supreme Being is seen in aham. The puram covers varieties of distinctive poems, mostly relating to man’s social behaviour.
- corresponding to five major regions of Tamil Nadu, these poems describe five types of tracts with their distinctive features. These are: kurinci (mountainous region), mullai (forest region), marutam (agricultural region), neytal (coastal region), and pallai (desert region). True love, which is either karpu (wedded) or kalavu (furtive), is considered under five aspects, namely, punartal (union), pirital (separation), irutal (patience in separation), irangal (bewailing), and udal (sulking), and these are made to correlate with tinai, the fivefold physiographical divisions.
- The delineation of the early Tamil society in these poems is remarkably clear and a great deal of light is thrown on the civilization of the Tamils.
- Sangam works provide us with valuable information regarding religion, social life, government, commerce, arts, music, dance, courtship, manners and customs, and the daily life of the Tamils. One another notable piece of work by Tiruvalluvar’s '(c. first century B.C.) is Tirukkural or Kural,
- Tirukkural which is in the form of couplets and deals with the three aims of life-aram
(righteousness), porul (wealth), and inbam or kamam (pleasure).
- It consists of 133 chapters each containing ten couplets. Conveying noble thoughts couched in concised language, each couplet is a gem by itself. The first part of Kural (arattuppal) gives the essentials of Yoga philosophy. Besides, it deals with the happy household life as well as guiding towards the path of renunciation. The thoughts of Kural in its second part (porutpal) centre on polity and administration, including citizenship and social relations, in an admirable way. The third part (inbattuppal or kamattuppal), consisting of couplets in dramatic monologues, treats of the concept of love. Post-Sangam period: The Epics
- The five major epics-Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka-cintamani, Valaiyapati, and Kundalakesi-are the outstanding contributions of the post-Sangam period.
- In this session we will explore two of the ‘Five Great Jewels’ of Tamil literature: The Lay of the Anklet (Cilappatikāram) and The Dancer with the Magic Bowl (Maṇimēkalai). These epics were composed sometime between the 1st and 8th centuries CE and present a view of the societies, religions, and cultures of ancient South India. The central narratives of both epics follow the adventures of female protagonists: Kaṇṇaki, a devoted wife turned goddess, and Maṇimēkalai, a dancercourtesan turned renunciant.
- These two epics are also connected through their female characters, as Maṇimēkalai is the daughter of Kaṇṇaki’s husband Kōvalaṉ and his mistress Mātavi. In conjunction with reading these fascinating tales, we will also explore their literary and historical contexts and their significance within the Jain and Buddhist religious traditions.
- Silappadikaram - contains all the three aspects of Tamil literature, viz. iyal, isai, and natakam, it has been designated as a muttamizhk-kappiyam. It is, therefore, invaluable as a source-book of ancient Tamil dance and classical music-both vocal and instrumental. The author of this work is the ascetic-poet Ilanko Adikal.
- Manimekalai, a direct sequel to Silappadikaram, is also a great source of information on ancient Tamil society. Written by Cittalai Cattanar, this epic marks a new development in Tamil literature by presenting philosophical and religious debates in mellifluous style. With this, I hope you had a brief understanding of Sangam Literature, i.e, Tamil Literature which is the ancient literatures of South India. Thank you
to children. Her well-known poem, Aathichoodi, demonstrates to children how to live a life full of moral genuineness with the use of the Tamil alphabet. Vijayanagar and Nayak period
- The Vijayanagar and Nayak period, reigning from approximately 1300 to 1650 C.E., was a period in Tamil history where the Tamil country would be affected by an invasion, and ultimately conquered. As a result, the rise of the Vijayanagar kingdom and Nayak governance came about. Exemplary works in Tamil literature were still produced in this era. For example, Thiruppugazh by Arunagirinathar. Thiruppugazh
- Thiruppugazh, created in the 15th century, is a work of religious songs praising Lord Murugan. The background behind Arunagirinathar’s reason for writing Thiruppugazh is quite intriguing. According to Arunagirinathar, Lord Murugan saved him when he was going to end his life at a temple. Ultimately, this reformed his life. Consequently, Arunagirinathar decides to make devotional songs to thank Lord Murugan for saving him.
- This period demonstrated the devotionality to religion prominently, especially with the use of literature. As seen throughout this article, the Hindu religion is prominently valued among Tamil people. The modern era of Tamil literature
- The late 18th to 19th centuries brought the Modern era in Tamil literature. This gave us the works of Subramanya Bharathi, who was a writer and an important member in terms of social reform. Bharathi was very influential, both with his literature and activism.
- Bharathi’s work is often cited as the inspiration for modern Tamil literature. His work is said to involve both modernist and classical techniques. Additionally, his poems show how outspoken he was about social issues, and often display rebellious remarks. Bharathi covered a variety of topics in his works, from children’s songs to praising those fighting for India’s independence. Here is Bharathi’s commentary on the Indian caste system: There is no caste system. It is a sin to divide people on caste basis. The ones who are really of a superior class are the ones excelling in being just, wise, educated and loving. The rise of Tamil novels
- The modern era of Tamil literature was accompanied by a rise in novels. Ramanichandaran would contribute to this rising trend with the composition of modern romance novels in the 20th century. She is currently the best-selling author in Tamil literature, with 178 novels written.
- Ramanichandran’s focus on romance novels does not include the idea of caste systems, which is a common controversy within South Asia because the caste system is still used to this day.
- One of her famous books, Kanney Kanmaniey, illustrates Madura and her lover, Sathyan. Madura’s brother loses money while betting on horses, causing her and her brother to work at Sathyan’s hotel. Sathyan unknowingly believes that Madura betrayed him and ends up marrying another woman, but his wife ends up dying. Conflicted with revenge and undying love, Sathyan is confused about how to act towards Madura. In sum, the story follows Sathyan’s journey of love and figuring out his feelings towards Madura.
- As a result, these types of stories are very popular among Tamil women because it allows them to live through these stories.
Cultural and linguistic significance in anthropology
- Tamil, being one of the oldest recorded languages in linguistic history, has a diverse library of literature. With commentaries on ethics and struggles, to songs depicting the beauty of nature before the rise of demolition of the environment, Tamil literature gives us a deep insight into the values of South Asian culture.
- Some of these values are still appraised today. In retrospect, the Tamil people were seemingly advanced in terms of thought and transcribing it into literature.
- The exploration of this language allows for a better understanding of the Tamil culture and its customs.
- In addition, there is linguistic significance when looking at the history of Tamil literature as well. Though most, if not all, literature from the 6th Century BCE does not remain today, it is still evident that the Tamil people took time to record their thoughts.
• The Sangam Plank is said to have shrunk in size to hold only the Kural
manuscript, throwing out the rest, much to the surprise of the critics.
• Idaikkadar had praised Kural, saying that his greatness was such that Valluvar
had
packed the essence of all knowledge from the vast world spanned by seven seas
inside a mustard seed. Anu had substituted the term kadugu (mustard) for
Auvaiyar (meaning an atom).
• It is interesting to note that the concept of Atom had already been established
in
the Tamil country two thousand years ago.
THREE DIVISIONS IN THIRUKURALS:
• BOOK I – Aram (அறம்):Book of Virtue(Dharma), dealing with moral
values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy(Chapters 1-38)
• BOOK II- Porul (ப ொ ருள்):Book of Polity(Artha), dealing with
socioeconomic
values polity, society and administration(Chapters 39-108).
BOOK III- INBAM (இன் ம்): Book of Love (Kama), dealing with
psychological values and love (Chapters 109-133).
STRUCTURE OF THIRUKURAL:
Tirukkural is a collection of 1330 couplets, each of which follows the structure
of "Kural Venba," a grammatical construction consisting of two lines of four
and three words. The piece is divided into 133 Adhikarams, each with ten
couplets.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THIRUKURAL:
• Thirukkural equally emphasizes the vital principles of vegetarianism,
castelessness, and brotherhood. The Thirukkural's lessons are so powerful
that they can be regarded as a source of inspiration for people of all ages.
• The sage Valluvar, who was unanimously elevated to the rank of
Thiruvalluvar, observed both the goodness and the weaknesses of
governance at various levels and encouraged men and women to lead moral
lives based on strong values such as righteousness, justice, truth, love,
honesty, courage, and compassion through various couplets. He described
the lives and characteristics of ordinary citizens, wives, husbands, and kings,
among others.
• Thirukkural has become a research topic in many universities and learning
institutions around the world. It has been translated into over 40 languages,
and its universality has been universally acknowledged and praised.
Tamil Literature Tamil literature goes back to the Sangam Era , named after the assembly (sangam) of poets. Sangam Period
- The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period.
- It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
- At the sangams, eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
- These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
- South India, during the Sangam Age, was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Three Sangams According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
- The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
- The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
- The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful source to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period. Sangam Literature The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named – Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
- Tolkappiyam: It was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work.
- Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
- It is a unique work on grammar and poetics, in its three parts of nine sections each, deals with Ezhuttu(letter), Col (word) and Porul (subject matter).
- Almost all levels of the human language from the spoken to the most poetic lie within the purview of Tolkappiyar’s analysis as he treats in exquisitely poetic and epigrammatic statements on phonology, morphology, syntax, rhetoric, prosody and poetics.
- Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies): It consists of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
- Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) : It consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
- Pathinenkilkanakku : It contains eighteen works about ethics and morals.
- The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
- Tamil Epics: The two epics Silappathikaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar.
- They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity. Medieval Tamil literature
- The medieval period, spanning from the 11th and 13th centuries, was one of harmony amongst Tamil people. Avvaiyar, a female poet whose name translates to ‘respectable woman’, created poems during this era that continue to be taught in Tamil schools today. Avvaiyar is one of the most crucial poets of Tamil history, as her poems appeal
Cultural and linguistic significance in anthropology
- Tamil, being one of the oldest recorded languages in linguistic history, has a diverse library of literature. With commentaries on ethics and struggles, to songs depicting the beauty of nature before the rise of demolition of the environment, Tamil literature gives us a deep insight into the values of South Asian culture.
- Some of these values are still appraised today. In retrospect, the Tamil people were seemingly advanced in terms of thought and transcribing it into literature.
- The exploration of this language allows for a better understanding of the Tamil culture and its customs.
- In addition, there is linguistic significance when looking at the history of Tamil literature as well. Though most, if not all, literature from the 6th Century BCE does not remain today, it is still evident that the Tamil people took time to record their thoughts.
Indian Languages and its Significance in International Context Indian Literature: Vedas from India Four Vedas-Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva are from most ancient text available from India, which have reached throughout the world through mostly English, but through other languages like German translations as well Ancient Texts-Philosophical and Creative Vedas, particularly Rig-Veda is known for its creative and aesthetic poetry as well. Upanishads and texts of Shaddarshanas-Six Schools of Indian philosophy, including non believer Samkhya philosophy, Buddhist, Jainism, Atheist Lokayata are more of theoretical texts. These are all known to the world through translations. Apart from these philosophical texts, there is a rich heritage of Sanskrit creative literature as well. Creative Sanskrit Literature Sanskrit has been language of philosophical and creative literature-both. Apart from Mahabharta, Ramayana and texts like Panchtantra and Hitopadesh, Sanskrit literature is known world over for its poetry and drama with Kalidas as most known name. Shakespeare and Kalidas!aa It is common refrain among literary critics in India to refer Kalidas as ‘Shakespeare of India’, though Kalidas lived nearly one thousand years before Shakespeare, that is why some critics will put it in reverse order as well-’Shakespeare as Kalidas of England’! Whatever way, but it reflects the concept of ‘World Literature’ and also Comparative study of literature, which would never have been possible without translations of the texts. Shakuntala Translation Translation of Abhigyan Shakuntalam in English was first done by William Jones in 1789 and after that by Sir Monier Williams in prose form in 1853, later more than 46 translations in twelve European languages appeared and now complete dramas and poetry collections of Kalidas are available in many English translations. English and other languages translations of many other Sanskrit classic writers are also available like that of Bhavbhuti , Kiratarjun etc. Contribution of Indian Creative Writing to World Literature Apart from classical Sanskrit literature, medieval period Indian literature is also known to the world, particularly Indian Bhakti movement poets like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Akka Mahadevi and many more through their translations. In modern period, big number of translations were done from Indian languages literatures. India has 22 national languages in 8th schedule of Indian constitution and 24 recognised by Sahitya Akademi-Academy of Letters for purpose of awarding annual best book prizes. Translations of Mirza Ghalib(Mirza Beg Asadullah Khan also known as Mirza Ghalib was an Urdu and Persian poet of the 19th century Mughal and British era in the Indian Subcontinent) Many scholars, even from non literary background have been fascinated by Ghalib’s philosophical Urdu ghazals. Aijaz Ahmad and many other scholars and translators have rendered Ghalib’s poetry and prose in English. Mirza Ghalib lived during 1857’s first war of Independence of India and went through lot of hard times as well, but his poetry is claimed to be as national heritage by both India and Pakistan, though there was no Pakistan during Ghalib’s times Role of Translation in First Noble Prize of Literature to India Rabindranath Tagore, most eminent Indian writer of Bengali language got Noble prize for literature in 1913, till now only Indian to receive this award for literature. Interesting part of this narrative is that Tagore himself translated 103 of his Bengali
