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Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1
Fatima R. KHATEEB
Károly Ihrig Doctoral School, University of Debrecen
WORK LIFE BALANCE-
A REVIEW OF THEORIES,
DEFINITIONS AND POLICIES
Review
Article
Keywords
Work-Life balance;
WLB;
Work-life balance definitions;
Work-life balance policies;
Abstract
Work-life balance as a concept encompasses different formulations, theories, policies,
and practices. The literature on the work-life balance presents a great deal of diversity.
This paper succinctly presents the research work done as a formulation in form of the
definitions, conceptualization in form of theories and deployment in form of
organizational policies in the field of work-life balance while indicating the authors,
research papers, books, journals etc.
Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1 INTRODUCTION Work-Life Balance (WLB) is defined by Kirchmeyer (2000) as the achievement of fulfilling experiences in the different aspects of life that require various resources, like energy, time and commitment and these resources are spread across all the domains. Work-life balance is oftentimes compared to a similar term work-family balance, but the former term incorporates other roles like community, social, religious and leisure roles taken up by an individual. Work-Life balance is increasingly challenging in the modern context and the challenge arises from the fact that it is very difficult to strike the balance between work and other domains of life. In addition to being a challenge to the individuals, the WLB as a concept has been taken up by the organizations and human resource departments across the board, in lieu of which many policies and strategies have been formulated to alleviate the conflict between the domains of work and life. On the theoretical front, various theories have been propounded since the 1970s. Starting with a generic but intuitive Segmentation theory, many other theories are found in the literature including the Spillover theory, the Compensation theory, the Enrichment theory, Facilitation theory, Border and Boundary theory. The following sections shall treat WLB vis a vis its various usages, policies and the theories as found in the literature. HISTORY OF WORK-LIFE BALANCE Work-Life Balance (WLB) has its beginnings in the nineteenth century after a long campaign of workers against long working hours in the factories (Hogarth & Bosworth, 2009). This was carried further into the early twentieth century when several labor unions campaigned for a cap on the maximum working hours (Myers, 1924). A significant moment in the history of WLB was when President F.D. Roosevelt signed the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. This act ushered in some far-reaching changes in the work regimes e.g. prohibition of the child labor, setting a minimum hourly wage, regulations to determine and record overtimes and setting maximum work week at 44 hours per week (which was later reduced to 4 0 hours in 1940) (Sullivan, 2014). The research in the field of work-life balance began in 1960s, when several researches were conducted focusing on working mothers and dual-earner families owing to the increase in the participation of women in the workforce (Lewis, Gambles, & Rapoport, 2007). The work of Rapport and Rapport in the 196 0s was pioneering in this field. It focused on the segmentation of work and family caused by rural to urban movement of workforce (Naithani, 2010). Before the 1970s, ‘work’ and ‘family’ were perceived as mutually exclusive domains but Kanter (1977) emphasized the fundamental interconnectedness of the two by highlighting how work affects the family and vice versa. Along the same lines, Pleck (1995) defined what he termed as spillover as a phenomenon where work role affects the family role and contrariwise. He further states, in the same study, that women experience spillover from family to work whereas men experience it from work to family. Continuing the research in this field, in the 1980s two new theories came to the fore. Staines ( 1980 ), described the relationship between work and family through compensation theory. As per the compensation theory a worker seeks to compensate the deficit in one aspect of life (in this case, work or family) by compensating in the other aspect i.e. by expending more resources in the other aspect. Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) came up with conflict theory which states that the aspects of work and life are contrasting in nature and in demanding effort and time these two aspects compete for an individual’s attention. By late 1980s various human resource practitioners started to present work-life balance as primarily a ‘business issue’ and the organizations across the board began to perceive that investing resources into WLB was for the greater good of the organization and the employee (Frame & Hartog, 2003). While the first wave of programs was addressed to support working mothers, in the 1990s, a growing need was felt that the work/life programs be directed to the commitments of everyone including women, men, parents, non-parents, singles and couples (Lockwood, 2003). On the theoretical front, the 1990s saw the formulation of several theories, chief among them the boundary theory by (Nippert-Eng, 1996a, 1996 b) which describes the work-life balance by classifying the workers as ‘Segmentors’ and ‘Integrators’. Today WLB is recognized as a major issue for both the employers and the employees to manage. Many of the issues related to WLB (like stress, absenteeism, employee retention, ill-health and morale) can be discerned as the by-products of a poorly managed WLB (Syed, 2015). Several additional indicators have made their way into the contemporary policy mix in the field of work-life balance which includes egalitarianism, work safety, flexible labor market and global competitiveness (Hogarth & Bosworth, 2009).
Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1 literature under various names like extension, generalization, familiarity, identity, isomorphism, continuation and congruence (Staines, 1980). Positive spillover refers to the fact that positive experiences in one domain result in fulfilment and attainment in another domain (Vijayakumar & Janakiram, 2017). The negative approach, which is also referred to as contrast, complementarity, opposition, regeneration and heteromorphism etc. in the literature, states the relationship between work and non-work spheres is inverse and antithetical (Staines, 1980). Elsewhere, spillover has also been categorized as Vertical and Horizontal Spillover. Horizontal spillover is defined as the effect that one domain of life has on the neighboring domain e.g., the affect that job satisfaction may have on private life. Vertical spillover has been expressed in terms of domain hierarchy which refers to the hierarchical organization of domains of life like job, family, leisure etc. Satisfaction or dissatisfaction in a subordinate domain spills over into superordinate domain. Overall life being the most superordinate of the domains ends up being affected the most (Sirgy, Efraty, Siegel, & Lee, 2001). The spillover effect has been worked into scales by several researchers. The first empirical measure of work-life balance is traced back to Small & Riley ( 1990 ) who developed Work Spillover Scale (WSS). Grzywacz & Marks (2000a), recognizing both positive and negative spillover effects, developed a 16- item scale measuring the effects of work-family spillover. It was followed by Kinnunen, Feldt, Geurts, & Pulkkinen (2006) four- factor model measuring negative work to family spillover, negative family to work spillover, positive work to family spillover and positive family to work spillover. Other measures and scales that have been developed in spillover measurement are: Greenhaus & Beutell’s (1985) interdomain conflict, Kirchmeyer’s ( 1993 ) (2000) assessment of positive and negative spillover, Higgins, Duxbury, & Lee’s (1992) use of role enhancement theory for developing measures for positive, negative and neutral impacts of work-family spillover. Even though a good deal of research has been done on spillover, it has its detractors as well. Guest (2002) referring to the spillover theory states that as a proposition, the spillover theory has been stated in a general way such that it has little or no value and that a detailed analysis of causes, reasons and consequences are needed. Table no. 3 has some of the published research in the field of Spillover theory. Conflict Theory Conflict theory, originally propounded by Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) posits that the fulfilment and achievement in one aspect of life result in sacrifice in the other aspect. This is based on the assumption that the two domains viz life and work are fundamentally incompatible with each other and that they have different norms and requirements. Citing earlier studies, like Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal (1964) and Katz, Kahn, & Kahn (1978), Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) define work-life conflict as “a form of inter- role conflict in which the pressures of the role from the work and family domains are mutually unharmonious in some respect”. That is, taking part in the one role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the other role. Powell & Greenhaus, (2010) base the conflict theory on role theory. The role theory itself is based on scarcity perspective, according to which there is a limited quantity of time and energy that is available to the individuals that may be divided among the various roles. In describing the conflict theory, Greenhaus & Beutell (1985) differentiate between three types of conflict viz; Time based conflict, Stress based conflict and Behavior based conflict. The time-based conflict occurs because of limited time which makes it difficult to manage effectively the demands of different roles. Long working hours, irregular shift work and work time not being flexible have been pointed out to being the source of the time-based work-life conflict. Strain based conflict arises from psychological demand of work, interaction fatigue and job burnout. Behavior based conflict arises from a situation when work demands exhibiting behaviors which may not be conducive to a family role and switching between the two roles can be a source of conflict (Roy, 2016).` Research has also led to the fact that the relationship of conflict that work and life has is bidirectional. That is, the domain of work can interfere with the domain of non-work and non- work can interfere with the work (Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991). Both of the aforementioned conflicts have a negative effect on work and family domains (Adams, King, & King, 1996). A great amount of research has focused on the implications of the work-life conflict which include poor health (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997), depression and hypertension (Thomas & Ganster, 1995), coronary heart diseases (Haynes, 1984 ), male-related physical problems (Burley, 1995), anxiety & irritability (Hertz, 1986) among others. Table no. 4 has some of the published research in the field of conflict theory. Border and Boundary Theory Boundary theory emphasizes on the ways that workers create, preserve and alter boundaries so that they may simplify and classify the world that they experience (Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000). The boundary theory has its origins in the sociological work Nippert-Eng ( 1996 a) wherein he describes how people seek to find and assign meaning to work and home and ease the transition
Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1 between the two. Boundary theory posits that there are psychological, physical and/or behavioral boundaries existing between the work and non- work aspects of individual’s life which outline the two domains as being different and distinct from each other (Allen, Cho, & Meier, 2014). Basing her premises on the boundary theory, Clark ( 2000 ) launched her idea of work/life border theory which posits that the individuals manage and negotiate the work and non-work domains in a way so that a balance may be attained between them. This idea is based on the assumption that ‘work’ and ‘non-work’ are two separate domains but that they affect each other. The border theory views this relationship between the domains on a continuum which ranges from segmentation to integration, such that on the pole of segmentation the two domains are mutually exclusive and on the pole of integration the two may be conceived as identical (Voydanoff, 2005a). The dialectic of segmentation and integration is further analyzed by determining the permeability and flexibility of the boundaries between the two domains. Flexibility signifies the malleability of the borders between the two domains and permeability deals with as to what extent the boundaries allow psychical or behavioral elements to pass from one domain into another (Saarenpää, 201 6 ). The flexibility of the boundaries is seen in the policies like flextime, job-sharing, part-time work and telecommuting (Cowan & Hoffman, 2007). In having described the boundaries according to permeability and flexibility, Clark (2000) asserts that the boundaries could be strong (impermeable and inflexible) to weak (flexible and blended), suggesting that the individuals accordingly can be characterized as ‘border crossers’ and ‘border keepers. Individuals are generally seen to be border-crossers who manage and negotiate the domains of work and family. The border crossers are characterized as Central Border Crossers and Peripheral Border Crossers. Central border crossers are greatly influential in both the domains and that they tend to affiliate with the central members of each domain. The border theory posits that central border crossers achieve greater work-family than the peripheral border- crossers (Donald & Linington, 2008). Table no. 5 has some of the published research in the field of Boundary/Border theory. Enrichment Theory For most of its history WLB studies were dominated by conflict-oriented perspective but there has been a change in the contemporary perspective as researchers have started to look into the potential symbiotic relationship between work and life. Enrichment theory was developed by Powell & Greenhaus (2006) in order to analyze the phenomenon of enrichment processes that link work to family and family to work. Enrichment is defined as a process that occurs when experience in one role improves the quality of life in another role. Alternatively, it can also be defined accumulation of psychological resources in a given role that are spilt over into another role (Carlson, Ferguson, Kacmar, Grzywacz, & Whitten, 2011). The model has been posited to be bidirectional as both family- to-work enrichment and work-to-family enrichment have been shown to occur by researchers. Although many similar constructs like facilitation and positive spillover have been used interchangeably with enrichment but there is a fundamental difference. Enrichment represents acquiring the resources and experiences that are useful for individuals facing challenges of life. Thus, enrichment theory suggests that enhancing of role performance in one domain is dependent upon gaining of resources in another domain. On the other hand, positive spillover describes transference of experiences, skills, moods and behaviors from one domain to another. A fundamental difference between the two concepts is that transferred experiences in spillover may not necessarily improve the life or increase the performance of the individual in another domain (Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne, & Grzywacz, 2006). Facilitation is assumed to take place when engaging in one domain produces gains that enhance the functioning of another life domain. The distinction between enrichment and facilitation is that of the level at which the analysis is done. Enrichment focuses on the individual quality of life whereas the facilitation delves into improving the functioning of the system (Carlson et al., 2006). Powell & Greenhaus (2006) assert that enrichment may occur along with one of the two pathways viz; Affective path and Instrumental path. Affective work-life enrichment occurs when workers transfer positive behavior and emotions between work and family. Instrumental work-life enrichment occurs when skills and behaviors gained in one domain increase the performance and effectiveness of that individual in another domain. Powell & Eddleston (2011) add family derived enrichment to the mix. Family derived enrichment occurs when the family members of worker support and assist him/her in work. Carlson et al (2006) improvising on Greenhaus and Powell’s model describe a four-dimensional resource gain to measure work-life enrichment namely Developmental, Efficiency, Affective and Capital gains. Table no. 6 has some of the published research in the field of Enrichment theory. Facilitation Theory Facilitation is defined as “A form of interaction in which resources linked with one role improve or make easier partaking in the other role”
Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1 characterized by decreasing participation in the dissatisfying aspect of life and increased participation in a satisfying domain. Alternatively, a person may respond to dissatisfaction in one domain by pursuing rewards in another. Rewards being those experiences that fulfil individuals’ desires which may further enhance his/her satisfaction. This form of compensation has been further characterized as Supplemental and Reactive compensation. Supplemental compensation occurs when the rewards are insufficient in one domain and they are sought in another domain. Reactive compensation occurs when undesirable experiences are redressed by desirable experience in another domain (Zedeck & Mosier, 1990). Although compensation and enrichment may be construed in a similar manner but the two are fundamentally different. In case of compensation lack of satisfaction in one domain leads to an enhanced focus in other domain while searching for positive feedback, whereas in case of enrichment skills and values in one domain enhance the experience in another domain (Roy, 2016). Instrumental Theory Developed as a concept of instrumentality which is defined as: “Work and career are primarily ways of obtaining the means to build and maintain a satisfying and successful family and leisure life; or vice versa” (Evans & Bartolomé, 1984).The basic idea here is that activities conducted in one sphere facilitates activities in other one, for example, a worker who works to maximize earnings even at the time-cost of working for long hour (Guest, 2002). Resource Drain Resource drain, based on the principle of scarcity, states that there is a negative correlation between work and life when it comes to resources. In expending resources in one domain, the amount of the resources available arise diminished (Morris & Madsen, 2007). When resources (like time, energy, money) fall short in a given domain it leads to stress and burnout (Frone, 2003). Resource drain theory is analogous to compensation theory, however the difference between the two is that compensation seeks to determine the result of dissatisfaction in one domain whereas resource drain only concerns simply with the transfer of resources without taking into account incentive for this transfer. Rothbard & Edwards (2003) are of the view that resource drain theory may well be identified as ‘time-based conflict’ and therefore pointing to the parallels between the two approaches. Congruence Theory The congruence theory is based on the idea that there is congruence or similarity between work and family and that this similarity is mediated through another variable like genetic factors, personality, traits, socio-cultural forces etc. (Zedeck, 1992). According to congruence theory, a third variable such as genetic factors or community cohesion could positively influence both work and family domains (Mathew & Natarajan, 2014). Although it is very similar to spillover theory, the fundamental difference between the two is that in spillover there is a direct relationship between the work and family whereas in congruence theory it is mediated by a third variable (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). Ecological Systems Theory Ecological theory describes the work-life balance by examining the ecological relationships in the worker’s ecosystem (Pocock, Skinner & Ichii, 2009). The worker ecosystems are conceived as microsystems being located in greater exosystems. It suggests that Work and Family represent a product of process, person, context, time which together yield an additive consequence on the experience of work and life (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000b). Beaujot (2017) basing their assumptions on the ecological theory, seek to work out the relationships between families and economic environment. They elaborate this model by describing earning and caring as two of the most important activities of the families. These activities adapt and change with changing circumstances of the families. Another improvisation on this theory is the person- in-environment theory, which posits that individuals have a dynamic relationship with their physical, social and natural environments (Pitt- Catsouphes & Swanberg, 2006). Ladder Theory Conceived by (Bird, 2006), ladder theory asserts that there are two aspects to the work-life balance, first the individual and second the organization. Their roles can be described as two legs of the ladder where the left leg stands for the obligations of the organization for the employees and the right leg stands for the responsibilities of the employees towards the organization. The two legs are joined by the steps namely Profits, Revenue, Commitment, Customer Service, Morale, Productivity, Retention and Recruitment. Such that for an employee the journey ends at the last step (Profits) while starting at recruitment. For balanced work and life both the legs need to be properly functioning. C ONCLUSIONS It is evident from the material presented above that most of the research is concentrated on few theories viz the Spillover theory, the Conflict theory, the
Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1 Segmentation- Integration theory, the Enrichment- Facilitation theory and the Border- boundary theory whereas the other aforementioned theories are a rarity in research. The reason for this being that the former theories are primarily conceived in the context of work-life balance whereas the theories in the latter category are originally conceived within the context of various social sciences like sociology, psychology, systems theory etc. Furthermore, in contrast to the earlier decades, the present research has shifted from negative and conflicting aspects to the positive and facilitative aspects of the work. In addition to the theories presented above some other approaches can be gauged from the literature viz Human Capital theory, Social Identity theory, Role theory among others. These research on these theories is primarily sociological centric and dated and therefore they have not been discussed above. The theories discussed in the paper have been discussed in a mutually exclusive manner but in reality, there are intersecting areas among these theories and it may be difficult to tell one from the other. Nonetheless, the paper has sought to indicate the differences between the theories with regards to approach and conception. About the Author The author is presently pursuing a PhD titled as “ Work-Life Balance of Female Nurses in Urban North India ” at the Károly Ihrig Doctoral School, University of Debrecen. The author can be reached at khateeb.fatima86@gmail.com REFERENCES [1] Abdulrahman, A., & Ali, W. (2018). The notion of work life balance, determining factors, antecedents and consequences: A comprehensive literature survey. [2] Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work–family conflict, and strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(1), 72 – 77. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076- 8998.4.1. [3] Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work- family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411–
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Volume XXIII, Issue 1/202 1 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Definitions of Work Life Balance S. No Category Author Definition
Behavioral/Personal (Kirchmeyer, 2000) “Achieving satisfying experiences in all life domains and to do so requires personal resources such as energy, time, and commitment to be well distributed across domains.”
(Kalliath & Brough,
“The individual perception that work and non-work activities are compatible and promote growth in accordance with an individual’s current life priorities.”
(Hill, Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001) “The degree to which an individual is able to simultaneously balance the temporal, emotional and behavioral demands of both paid work and family responsibilities.”
(Visser & Williams,
“Having sufficient control and autonomy over where, when and how you work to fulfill your responsibilities within and outside paid work.”
(Littig, 2008) “Effectively combining working life with private obligations or aspirations.”
(Crooker, Smith, & Tabak, 2002) “The stability characterized by the balancing of an individual’s life complexity and dynamism with environmental and personal resources such as family, community, employer, profession, geography, information, economics, personality, or values.”
Organizational (Lockwood, 2003) “Work/life balance from the employee viewpoint: the dilemma of managing work obligations and personal/family responsibilities.” & “Work/life balance from the employer viewpoint: the challenge creating a supportive company culture where employees can focus on their jobs while at work.”
(Greenblatt, 2002) “The absence of unacceptable levels of conflict between work and non-work demands.”
(Felstead, Jewson, Phizacklea, & Walters,
“Relationship between the institutional and cultural times and spaces of work and non-work in societies where income is predominantly generated and distributed through labor markets.”
(Voydanoff, 2008) “The global assessment that work and family resources are sufficient to meet work and family demands such that participation is effective in both domains.”
(Heery & Noon, 2008) "The principle that paid employment should be integrated domestic life and community involvement in the interests personal and social well-being”.
(Vanitha, 2011) “The perfect coordination of individual as a brand of employee at workplace with respect to his/her attitude towards work, working condition and at positive focus towards their personal life generally connoted as work life balance.”
(Purohit, 2013) “Term used to describe those practices at workplace that acknowledge and aim to support the needs of employees in achieving a balance between the demands of their family (life) and work lives.”
Temporal/ Role (Clark, 2000) “Satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home with a minimum of role conflict.”
(Fleetwood, 2007) “Work–life balance is about people having a measure of control over when, where and how they work.”
(Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003) “The extent to which an individual is equally engaged in—and equally satisfied with—his or her work role and family role”
(Kelliher, Richardson, & Boiarintseva, 2019) “The relationship between work and non‐work aspects of individuals' lives, where achieving a satisfactory work‐life balance is normally understood as restricting one side (usually
