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Is a unit difficult to define, it is larger than the phoneme and smaller than the word. Phonemes are the basic phonological elements, and above them, there are the syllable and the word, which are larger in extent. The syllables that form words can have 3 positions: NUCLEAR/SYLLABIC/SYLLABLE-MEDIAL: only a vowel, which is considered a central part of any syllable and is on peak position. REALIZING/ SYLLABLE-INITIAL: before the vowel there may be one or more consonants. ARRESTING/SYLLABLE-FINAL: after the vowel there may be one or more consonants. Number of syllables in a word = Number of vowel sounds in a word SYLLABIC CONSONANTS: sounds /l/ and /n/ can be a syllable with no vowel sound EXPRESSION OF THE SYLLABIC STRUCTURE: (V) = vowel – (C) = consonant
Stressed syllables are stronger than unstressed ones. The position of stress can change the meaning of a word, so it is part of its phonological composition. Factors that make a syllable count as stressed: ARTICULATORY POINT OF VIEW: o MUSCULAR ENERGY AND BREATH FORCE: stressed syllables are produced with great effort, manifested in the air pressure generated on the lungs, and in the articulatory movements in the vocal tract. AUDITORY POINT OF VIEW: o PITCH/PITCH VARIATION: stressed syllables are pronounced on a higher pitch than surrounding syllables. o LENGTH/VOWEL DURATION: stressed syllables have full length, they are longer than unstressed ones. o LOUDNESS/INTENSITY: stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones because they are produced with greater breath effort and muscular energy. o VOWEL QUALITY: stressed syllables are never weak, they have a full quality. In unstressed syllables, the peripheral vowel is replaced by /Ə/, this is called vowel reduction.
They have a high tendency to contain the vowel /Ə/, which is never stressed.
Only occurs on unstressed syllables Commonest vowels in connected spoken English Has no regular spelling Difficult to hear
When a word is said in its citation form, one strongly stressed syllable will stand out from the rest. The strongest stress is the primary stress, followed by the secondary stress, and the rest is considered unstressed. LEXICALLY DESIGNATED STRESS: stress occurs at any point in the word and it is fixed for each individual word WORD STRESS GUIDELINES: WORDS CONSISTING OF 2/3 SYLLABLES: primary stress on the first syllable. LONGER WORDS: tendency for the antepenultimate syllable to have the primary stress. STRESS IN ENGLISH COMPOUNDS: there are 2 types of compounds
INITIAL ELEMENT STRESS (IES): main stress on the first/initial part of the compound.
FINAL ELEMENT STRESS (FES): main stress on the last/final part of the compound.
Above the sounds
STRESS GUIDELINES FOR COMPOUNDS:
WORD SHAPE: if written as 1 word, it always has IES, if written as 2 words or with a
hyphen, it can have either of both.
THE MANUFACTURED RULES: if the material used in its manufacture is included, it has
FES.
LOCATION RULE: tendency to have FES is location is involved.
TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS:
Normally, the first syllable is stressed.
LONGER WORDS:
Words with more than 2 syllables always contain a stressed one.
Function words, repeated lexically items and items which are direct equivalents are likely to lose stress completely, while content words and contrasted items are normally stressed. Exceptions to function words being unstressed:
Wh-words forming questions
Demonstratives
Prepositions where a contrast in stated or implied
At more rapid tempo, the number of unstressed syllables and words will increase.
Rhythm is detectable in the occurrence of stressed syllables at regular intervals of time.
STRESS-TIME RHYTHM THEORY: the times from each stressed syllable to the next will
tend to be the same.
STRESS & RHYTHM: stressed syllables tend to occur at equal intervals of time because
the unstressed syllables in between give the impression of being compressed if there are many and expanded if there are few (STRESS-TIMING); the same happens with vowels, as more vowels are added to the syllable, it will compress.
STRESS-TIMING: it is achieved by lengthening certain vowels; vowels tend to be
lengthened in stressed syllables and shortened in unstressed ones.
SYLLABLE TIMING: it is not used in English. It gives the impression of equal length for
each syllable regardless of stressing.
It is the division of speech into tone units which may or may not coincide with silent pauses. Tone units are short manageable bits that contain certain pieces of information or thought groups that are said altogether in one unit. Speakers divide the speech for planning and breathing reasons, but also to help the listener as:
The language is handed out in small pieces which can be interpreted one at a time.
The grouping of words within a message into longer or shorter sections helps the listener
to understand the message as a whole.
INTONATION GROUP: it is the basic unit of speech melody. They often correspond to a
grammatical clause. Where its boundaries occur, it is possible to pause.
PAUSING: pauses are important in speech because:
Allow the speaker to take breath.
Show what belongs together grammatically
Usually coincide with punctuation in written text
When reading a dialogue, long pauses at paragraph breaks indicate a change of
speaker
Add emphasis or importance to an item when employed before or after it.
Help speaker to control their breathing and avoid speeding up to unacceptable rates.
BRITISH SETTINGS: loose, inactive lips, concave tongue with active tip, neutral larynx position, relative relaxation throughout. US SETTINGS: spread lips, open jaw, palatalized tongue body position, retroflex articulation, nasal voice, lowered larynx, creaky voice.
It is the scientific study of all aspects of the spoken form of language. It studies the vocal organs used to produce sounds (ARTICULATORY PHONETICS), how the vibrations travel from the speaker’s mouth to the listener’s ear and produce sound waves (ACOUSTIC PHONETICS), and how this sound waves travel along the ear canal, cause the ear drum to vibrate and transmit the movement to the brain that interprets it (AUDITORY PHONETICS).
It is language specific and it describes the way speech sounds occur, function and combine in particular languages; we use symbols to represent sounds.
It is the process of teaching how to produce the sounds of a language.
It is a method of teaching reading and writing that relies on phonological awareness.
SUPRASEGMENTALS: they are features that operate over stretches of speech larger than a segment. They are: o VOICE QUALITY: the overall long-term setting of vocal organs, including the tongue and vocal cords. o PROSODY: include long-term settings and shorter-term variation in loudness and intonation. o INTONATION: the use of the pitch of the voice in speech. o METRICAL ANALYSIS OF SPEECH: it concerns word stress and rhythm. o TEMPORAL FEATURES OF SPEECH: it includes speed and pausing. SEGMENTALS: they are the individual vowel and consonant sound units. o CONSONANTS: divided into voiced, they involve vibration of the vocal cords, and voiceless, they do not involve vibration. o VOWELS: divided by length into long and short vowels. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE: it describes the way consonant and vowel segments combine to form syllables. The basic division is between initial consonants (ONSET), and the vowel (PEAK), and any other final consonants (CODA), together giving the rhyme. CONNECTED SPEECH PROCESSES: they describe the way individual segments are affected as a result of the context of surrounding sounds.
Language is the human vocal noise used systematically and conventionally by community for purposes of communication. When people speak, they employ a sort of linguistic code; to understand each other, people must share the same code or language. In the case of the spoken language, the substance used is phonic substance, in the case of the written language, the substance used is graphic substance.
The 2 sciences concerned with language are Linguistics and Phonetics. Although both of them study language, they do it from a
Phonetics
Introduction & Theoretical
Material
Phonology
Pronunciation
Phonics
Components of pronunciation
Language
The linguistic sciences
different angle; while phonetics is interested in sounds and how they are organized and transmitted, Linguistics is concerned with how language is structured grammatically and semantically.
They are the parts of the body that are used in producing speech sounds: THE ROOF OF THE MOUTH: formed by: o UPPER LIP o UPPER TEETH o ALVEOLAR RIDGE o HARD PALATE o SOFT PALATE/VELUM o NASAL CAVITY THE FLOOR OF THE MOUTH: formed by: o LOWER LIP o LOWER TEETH o TONGUE: TIP BLADE FRONT BACK THE VOCAL CORDS: 2 flaps of skin and muscle located behind the Adam’s apple and lying at the top of the trachea. THE CAVITIES: the cavities from the vocal cords until the air escapes from the body are known as vocal tract: o THROAT/PHARYNX o MOUTH/ORAL CAVITY o NOSE/NASAL CAVITY o BACK WALL OF THE PHARYNX
All English speech sounds are made using air from the lungs, because of this, the airstream is known as pulmonic, and since it travels outwards, it is known as egressive (PULMONIC EGRESSIVE AIRSTREAM). The lungs take in air and, as it is expelled, it is obstructed and modified in various ways in order to create different sounds. The first organ that can obstruct the airstream in some way is the vocal cords.
They are 2 flaps of skin and muscle located behind the Adam’s apple. By the action of the muscles surrounding them, they can adopt a number of positions: VOICE: they are drawn together, blocking the airstream from passing through but, as they are held at a light tension, the airstream forces them apart causing vibration. This vibration is called voice and is present in voiced sounds. VOICELESSNESS: they are pulled apart, so the airstream can move freely down to or up from the lungs without obstruction. Sounds made without vibration are called voiceless sounds. THE [h] SOUND: they are brought almost together, having a small gap between them so the air can escape through the cords producing a hissing noise called friction, the resulting sounds are called fricative sounds. THE GLOTTAL STOP: they are drawn together along their length and held in tension strong enough that the airstream is blocked from escaping until the vocal cords are drawn apart.
The entire speech apparatus is made up of a series of organs and cavities that form a passage from the lungs to the lips and nostrils; the section extending from the larynx upwards is called the vocal tract. The most important elements are:
The speech mechanism
Vocal cords/folds
Airstreams
The vocal organs
VOICED vs. VOICELESS: o VOICED: voiced sounds imply vibration of the vocal cords. [b], [d], [g], [ʤ], [v], [δ], [z], [ʒ], [r], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [j], [w] o VOICELESS: voiceless sounds do not imply vibration of the vocal cords. [p], [t], [k], [tʃ], [f], [θ], [s], [ʃ], [h] PLACE OF ARTICULATION: the air coming from the lungs can be obstructed at various places in the oral cavity; in each case, one articulator moves towards or touches another one, the passive articulators are on the roof of the mouth, while the active ones are below. o BILABIAL: the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip is the passive. [b], [p], [m] o LABIO-DENTAL: the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive. [v], [f] o DENTAL: the tongue tip and/or blade is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive. [δ], [θ] o ALVEOLAR: the tongue tip and/or blade is the active articulator and the alveolar ridge is the passive. [d], [z], [n], [l] o POST-ALVEOLAR: the tongue tip curls back and lies opposite the back of the alveolar region. [r] o PALATO-ALVEOLAR: the tongue blade/front is the active articulator and the back of the alveolar region is the passive. [ʤ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [ʃ] o PALATAL: the tongue front is the active articulator and the hard palate is the passive. [j] o VELAR: the tongue back is the active articulator and the velum (soft palate) is the passive. [k], [g], [ŋ] o LABIO-VELAR: the articulators are the velum (soft palate) and the lips. [w] o GLOTTAL: the articulators are the vocal cords. [h] MANNER OF ARTICULATION: the type of obstruction made by the articulators. o PLOSIVES: when an active articulator comes into firm contact with a passive one, forming a stricture of complete closure, the airstream is built up behind this closure. The articulators separate suddenly producing an explosive sound called plosion. [p], [t], [k], [b], [d], [g] o FRICATIVES: when an activate articulator comes into light contact with a passive one, forming a stricture of close approximation, the air has to force its way out, making a noise called friction. [f], [θ], [s], [ʃ], [h] [v], [δ], [z], [ʒ] o AFFRICATES: formed by a succession of a plosive and a fricative. The active articulator forms a stricture of complete closure with the passive one, but they come apart slowly into the fricative position. [tʃ], [ʤ] o LATERALS: the active articulator comes into firm contact with the passive one, and the air escapes through one or both sides of the contact because one or two sides from the tongue are separated from the sides of the palate. [l] o NASALS: in a nasal sound, the velum must be lowered, and there must be a stricture of complete closure somewhere in the mouth, so that the air escapes through the nose. [m], [n], [ŋ] o APPROXIMANTS & SEMI-VOWELS/GLIDES: these sounds are produced with an approximation of the articulators which is too open to cause any friction. Approximants: [r]. Semi-vowels/glides: [j], [w] OBSTRUENTS & SONORANTS:
o OBSTRUENTS: created by obstructing the airflow in the vocal tract. [p], [t], [k], [tʃ], [f], [θ], [s], [ʃ], [h], [b], [d], [g], [ʤ], [v], [δ], [z], [ʒ]
o SONORANTS: created by continuous and unobstructed airflow through the vocal tract. [r], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [j], [w] STOPS & CONTINUANTS: o STOPS: pronounced in a way that the airflow is stopped. [p], [t], [k], [tʃ], [b], [d], [g], [ʤ] o CONTINUANTS: pronounced with a prolonged airflow. [f], [θ], [s], [ʃ], [h], [v], [δ], [z], [ʒ], [r], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [j], [w]
All English vowel sounds are voiced and the air escapes through the mouth alone. Vowel sounds are defined as those during which the airstream escapes through the mouth with little or no obstruction. The main organ producing the difference between the different vowel sounds is the tongue, which can adopt various positions within the mouth. Vowels can be: MONOPHTHONGS: they are vowel sounds that does not change during its production. [i:], [ɪ], [e], [æ], [Ʌ], [ɜ:], [Ə], [ɑ:], [ɒ], [ɔ:], [Ʊ], [u:] DIPHTHONGS: they are vowel sounds that does change during its production. [eɪ], [aɪ], [ɔɪ], [aʊ], [Əʊ], [ɪƏ], [eƏ], [ʊƏ] Monophthong vowel sounds can be categorized according to: TONGUE POSITION: o PART RAISED: FRONT: [i:], [ɪ], [e], [æ] CENTRAL: [ɜ:], [Ə], [ɑ:] BACK: [ɒ], [ɔ:], [Ʊ], [u:], [Ʌ] o HEIGHT: HIGH/CLOSE: [i:], [ɪ], [ɜ:], [Ə], [Ʊ], [u:] MID: [e], [ɔ:] LOW/OPEN: [æ], [Ʌ], [ɑ:], [ɒ] MUSCULAR TENSION: o TENSE: [i:], [æ], [u:] o LAX: [ɪ], [e], [Ʌ], [ɜ:], [Ə], [ɑ:], [ɒ], [ɔ:], [Ʊ] LIP POSITION: o ROUND: [ɒ], [ɔ:], [Ʊ], [u:] o UNROUNDED: [ɒ], [ɔ:], [Ʊ], [u:] LENGTH: o LONG: [i:], [ɜ:], [ɑ:], [ɔ:], [u:] o SHORT: [ɪ], [e], [æ], [Ʌ], [Ə], [ɒ], [Ʊ]
Content words are nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs; they carry the most important message of the utterance.
Vowel sounds
Basic Notions
Transcription Dictation
Content/lexical words
